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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




A PANELED CEILING IN OAK 
Frontispiece 



T H E U P-TO-D AT E 
HARDWOOD FINISHER 



IN TWO PARTS 

ILLUSTRATED 



PART ONE 

GIVING RULES AND METHODS FOR WORKING HARDWOODS, WITH DESCRIP- 
TION OF TOOLS REQUIRED, THE METHODS OF USING, AND HOW TO SHARPEN 
AND CARE FOR THEM, INCLUDING SAWS, PLANES, FILES, SCRAPERS, 
CHISELS, GOUGES AND OTHER WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO CHOOSE 
HARDWOODS FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES, AND HOW TO WORK AND PROPERLY 
MANAGE VENEERS. THE PROPER USE OF GLUE, DIRECTIONS FOR PRE- 
PARING GLUE, BLIND OR SECRET NAILING, HOW DONE AND HOW FINISHED. 
HOW TO SHARPEN AND USE SCRAPERS OF VARIOUS FORMS, WITH ILLUS- 
TRATIONS SHOWING TOOLS AND HOW TO HANDLE THEM PROPERLY, ETC. 



PART TWO 

TREATS ON THE FILLING, STAINING, VARNISHING, POLISHING, GILDING, 
ENAMELING AND FINISHING ALL KINDS OF WOODWORK. IT ALSO TREATS 
ON RENOVATING OLD WORK, RE-POLISHING, RE-VARNISHING AND WOOD 
FINISHING GENERALLY. THERE IS A SHORT TREATISE ON DYEING WOODS 
IN VARIOUS COLORS FOR INLAYING AND MARQUETRY WORK, WITH RULES 
FOR MAKING STAINING, DYES, FILLERS, AND POLISHES OF VARIOUS KINDS, 
FRENCH POLISHING, HARD-OIL FINISH, RUBBED AND FLAT FINISH, TREAT- 
MENT OF HARDWOOD FLOORS, WAXING, POLISHING, SHELLACKING AND 
GENERAL FINISHING OF HARDWOOD IN ALL CONDITIONS. 



By FRED T. HODGSON, Architect 

Member of Ontario Association of Architects, Editor of ''National 
Builder^'' and author of the ''Modern Estimator and Contractors'' 
Guide,'" "Modern Carpentry,''^ "Architectural Drawings 
Self-Taught,'''' etc. 




CHICAGO 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1904 



UBf>«V '«f 0ON6RF3S 

OCT 21 1904 

,OooyTlfh( Entry , 
JLJfSS CX XXo. Na 




'^W'i 



COPYRIGHT. 1904 
BY 
FREDERICK J. DRAKE & COMPANY 
CHICAGO, U. S. A. 



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PREFACE 

Some twelve or fourteen years ago, I prepared a 
little manual on "Hardwood Finishing," which became 
quite popular, and to some extent remains so up to 
the present writing. The little work, however, was 
far from complete, and I have been asked by a large 
number of woodworkers to extend the limits of the 
work, or to reorganize and add more to the subject oi 
wood preparation. 

After considering the matter, I was impressed by 
the latter suggestion, as the title "Hardwood Finisher" 
seemed to be somewhat misleading, as the intention 
of the book was to give general instructions in 
finishing woods of all kinds — hard and soft — and not 
only making them ready for the varnisher and 
polisher, but also to instruct the workman in the 
latter process as well as the former. I have therefore 
embodied in this new work a number of directions 
for making and finishing the raw wood, making it 
ready for the finisher or varnisher and polisher; and 
have also given directions and formulas for mixing the 
materials and applying them to the prepared wood. 

It goes without saying, that to make a work of this 
kind useful, it must contain much that has been 
published before, and much that is taken from the 
workshop and from the experience of workmen, 
many of whom have given me their own methods of 
working. I am also indebted to a number of current 
journals, such as "Carpentry and Building," "The 
National Builder," "Scientific American," "The 

5 



6 PREFACE 

Carpenter," "The Woodworker/' "The English 
Mechanic," "The Painter's Gazette," and several 
others, to whom I offer thanks for such matter as I 
have made use of. 

While the present work may not be as complete as 
it might be, I have some reason to think it very much 
superior to any work of the kind now in the market, 
as it covers more ground, and deals with the subject 
of wood-finishing in a more extended and complete 
manner than any other work devoted to the subject 
that I know of. Mowever, be this as it may, every 
effort has been made to obtain the best and latest 
information on the subject and to put it in such a 
form that the regular every-day workman may under- 
stand what is intended to be conveyed. If I have 
failed to make everything clear to the reader it is 
because of the lack of ability on my part, not because 
of desire to do so. 

Fred T. Hodgson. 

Collingwood, Ont., Canada. 
Oct. 1st, 1904. 



The Up-to-Date Hardwood Finisher 

PART ONE 
INTRODUCTORY 

Wood is, and always has been, one of the most 
important and useful materials that Dame Nature has 
vouchsafed to bless humanity with, and the latter's 
necessities and ingenuity have made the best of the 
circumstances. 

It need hardly be said that Nature seemed to have 
well understood the wants of her children and pro- 
vided for them in a most liberal manner, for it is said 
that nearly one-third of the earth's surface is covered 
by trees; all of which are, in some form or another, 
contributory to the wants and pleasures of man. 

The introduction of machinery for the rapid working 
of nearly all kinds of intricate mouldings and shapes 
of woodwork has, in a great measure, had a tendency 
to elevate the taste of the whole community, though 
I must confess that artistic excellence of a high order, 
in the mechanical arts, is now scarcely found among 
our younger workmen, machinery having almost done 
away with the necessity for the fine kinds of hand 
and brain work. Fashion, which rules despotically 
in the wardrobe, influences, to a greater or lesser 
degree, the style and finish of woodwork and, to a 
certain extent, the kind of wood that must be used for 
certain purposes. Thirty or forty years ago no other 

7 



8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

wood than clean white pine would be permitted to do 
service in a building. All woodwork had to be pine; 
floors, doors, windows, even to the bath fittings. 
Then Dame Fashion sent forth her decree and a 
mixture of white and Southern pine was used, 
followed shortly afterward by the abominable 
mixture of ash, walnut and chestnut. Some architect, 
who deserves well of his country, introduced all 
walnut and all mahogany fitments; and at once people 
of taste who saw this manner of finish noticed its 
superiority over the medley; and the fashion then of 
finishing in one kind of wood became the rage. Wal- 
nut was found too dark for general purposes and was 
soon abandoned for the lighter woods; chestnut, 
sycamore, ash, cherry, birch and oak were then tried, 
but I believe I voice the opinion of a majority of 
architects when I say that, with the exception of oak, 
the light-colored woods were not successful, from an 
aesthetic point of view, and it is on record that many 
buildings finished in these woods have since had their 
woodwork cleaned and stained to imitate darker 
woods or have been painted. One of the valuable 
qualities of white oak is, that it grows richer in color 
as it gets older, and no matter how it is finished, so 
long as the grain is visible, it mellows and improves 
with age. This is a quality that no other of our 
American woods possesses in the same degree. All 
the oaks have this quality to a certain extent, but the 
white oak {Quercus alba) possesses it more than any 
other. Mahogany, too, has this quality largely, if 
true Spanish mahogany is used, but little of this is in 
the market; though there are many woods that have the 
appearance of mahogany, and are called mahogany, 
such as cherry and black birch, and both buyer and 



HARDWOOD FINISHER g 

user are oftentimes deceived, and pay for what they do 
not get. 

Americans have often been reproached with will- 
fully or ignorantly ignoring or destroying their own 
handsome woods, while importing from abroad at 
excessive cost, and the payment of heavy duties, 
foreign woods which are much inferior to many of 
native growth. This folly prevailed at a time when 
it was fashionable and even popular to believe there 
was no merit in domestic productions of any sort. 
This state of things, however, is now at an end, and 
in the neighborhood of all large towns, and in country 
places as well, a finish in hardwood is the rule, and a 
finish in pine the exception, if the building to be fin- 
ished makes any pretension of being "up to the times." 

With regard to the difference in cost between a 
finish in the best clear pine, and the best selected 
hardwood, there is really but little, if any, if we take 
into consideration durability and good taste. As 
between pine wood and good, well finished hardwood, 
the disparity in value and merit is so very little as to 
completely silence any comparison. Between poor 
pine and poor hardwood the preference should be by 
all means given to the former; because poor pine as 
it reveals its defects can be puttied and painted in a 
manner to disguise them; whereas the defects of poor 
hardwood are almost incurable. The rationale of the 
subject seems to resolve itself into the following 
statement: 

Modern taste in expensive dwellings calls for the 
free use of hardwoods. It is immaterial which are 
used, but highly essential that the best seasoned woods 
should be selected; and, further, that they should be 
skillfullv treated and finished. 



10 THE UP-TO-DATK 

The principal recommendation of hardwood is that 
it achiiits of a treatment which renders it impervious 
to the effects of atmospheric changes and, therefore, 
can be made more durable and ultimatel}' less expen- 
sive than pine wood. A hardwood that is well 
seasoned before use, that is treated with proper fillers 
to close up its pores, and then finished with successive 
coats of suitable varnish, well rubbed in with pumice- 
stone, being finally brought to a higher flat finish, 
presents the most attractive, serviceable and reliable 
style of woodwork than can be introduced into a house. 
Well finished hardwood obviates the expense and 
annoyance of constant renewals, which pine work calls 
for in patching, puttying and painting. The most 
brilliant gloss of finished hardwood can be restored by 
a skilled person without disturbing the furniture or 
carpets of a house. 

Pine work seems peculiarly and incomparably 
adapted for cheap work. A good article of common 
pine, suitable for ordinary work, can be procured and 
worked at considerably less expense than would be 
involved in using good hardwood. The use of poor 
hardwood in any work should not be tolerated or 
thought of under any circumstances, for the simple 
reason that it is certain to create annoyance and 
expense, which no house-owner, especially of moderate 
priced property, should be subjected to. 

Pine, however, is not the only soft wood that may 
be used in house finishing, but it is the most popular, 
because the most plentiful and doubtless the most 
satisfactory to deal with. Basswood, poplar, elm, 
whitewood, spruce and hemlock all make fairly good 
finishing woods when properly selected and properly 
treated; but, with the exception of elm, perhaps, all 



HARDWOOD FINISHER ii 

of them require to be either painted or stained before 
a good finish can be obtained. Elm, black ash and 
chestnut have all coarse grain, and are unsuited for 
tasteful work, though all right for ordinary fitments; 
and indeed may be used for kitchen or bathroom finish 
in fairly good houses. Later on I will deal with each 
one of them, and some other of our native woods at 
length. 

The present methods of hardwood finishing are 
comparatively new, so far as the manner of operation 
and materials are concerned; as I can find nothing 
dating farther back than 1850 in the vast amount of 
literature at my command that treats in any way 
intelligently on the subject; true, there are methods 
of varnishing, lacquering and French polishing given; 
also treatment on finishing in wax, notably a small 
pamphlet containing a treatise on "The Shining Up of 
Woodwork," dating as far back as 1809, and published 
in London. This little treatise is the first to make 
mention of a wood-filler being employed. The author 
says that "the pores of the wood ought to be sealed up 
with a mixture made of ground chalk or rotten stone 
coloured like the wood, and mixed with glue water. 
Cover the work to be shined up with the mixture, then 
wipe off and when hard and dry, smooth off fineh^ 
with shark-skin and hair-clothe." He then goes on 
to show how to finish in wax or with shellac, as the 
case may be. He says nothing of French polishing, 
but gives directions for varnishing and rubbing down 
with rotten stone. 

To-day there are quite a number of works published 
on wood-finishing, which shows how much interest is 
taken in the subject. 

The introduction of the modern methods of polishing 



12 THK LP-TO-DATK 

finished woodwork has 'so reduced the cost of fine 
furniture and elaborately finished woodwork, that now 
the poor man may ha\e in his house one or more 
pieces of finely wrought work, as well as the man of 
wealth. French polishing was a costly operation, 
and made more costly because of the secrecy sur- 
rounding the process. IC.\j)crts were bound not to 
teach others the process unless they were well paid 
for it, and the pupil was compelled to take a solemn 
oath that he would not divulge the secret or convey to 
others the method, unless he was paid a large sum, 
often as high as $ioo. French polish when well done 
is certainly a fine finish, and while still costly, is often 
employed in finishing high-class furniture and wood- 
work in costly buildings, but its general use is rapidly 
falling off; yet no wood-finisher is completely rounded 
off unless he has thorough knowledge of the best 
French polishing, and in the present work I purpose 
giving a thorough description of this method, with 
illustrations of the appliances made use of in the 
process. 

While it is not my intention to write a treatise on 
the useful woods of America, I do not think it will be 
out of place to describe a few of them, showing their 
manner of growth, their peculiarities, durability, and 
the uses they can be put to, with directions for working 
and finishing them. 

In every description of wood the elementary com- 
position of the organic tissue is the same, but the 
latter is found associated with \ery variable organic 
elements, according to the species of the tree. 

Pine trees, for example, contain turpentine, and oak 
trees tannin. The combustible part of wood is this 
same organic tissue. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 13 

The exterior characteristics of woods are very 
different from one another. Thus certain wood is 
soft and tender and of a loose tissue, whilst another 
is hard and of a compact grain. Thence there is quite 
a natural division into two classes. The first includes 
all the soft and tender woods, amongst which may be 
mentioned the pines, white wood or plane tree, bass- 
wood, poplar, etc. The second includes all the heavy 
and hard wood, such as the oaks, maples, beech, birch, 
cherry, walnut, etc. 

When wood is first cut down as timber, it contains 
from 40 to 45 per cent of water, but this quantity 
gradually lessens until it is said to be thoroughly 
seasoned, when it only contains from 5 to 7 per cent. 
Moisture, however, is always present in wood, and as 
it gets older, if exposed to the air, will take in from 10 
to 15 per cent. It then becomes very hydrometrical, 
and loses or absorbs water according to the state of 
dryness or humidity of the surrounding air. 

The density of wood, like that of all porous bodies, 
can be considered in two different ways, and can be 
looked for under its apparent volume. The only 
method which can then be employed consists in form- 
ing a block of the wood, the volume of which can be 
easily measured, and then taking the weight of it. 
The ratio of this weight to that of the same bulk of water 
would be the density sought for. This density for the 
same wood varies according to the degree of seasoning 
it has had, and to the form and position of the fibers 
in the sample. A block six inches square cut from 
a knot, or burl, or a cross-grained part of a tree, would 
be considerably more dense, and weigh more, than 
would a block of a similar size cut from the same tree, 
if it was straight-grained and uniform. 



14 THE UP-TO-DATE 

It is the density of the harder woods that makes 
them popular with wood-finishers. A hard, close- 
-grained wood re(|uires little or no filler, and offers 
better opportunities to the polisher than do the woods 
of lesser densit\'. 

The use of nearly all kinds of hardwood in the 
general finish of good houses, has completely taken the 
place of using pine or other soft woods in wainscoting, 
floors, doors and general fitments. The variety of 
the woods employed in these finishings has greatly 
increased within the last few years. How so many of 
these beautiful and suitable woods could have fallen 
into disuse within the present century is one of the 
decorative mysteries of this period. Walnut, which 
was the pioneer of the new departure, still remains in 
use, where cost is no object, although- its dull color 
and unpolished surface are dingy and somber. It has 
had its use, however, in directing attention to the 
employment of solid woods, though it is now on the 
retired list. Mahogany is at present in high favor, the 
variety known as San Domingo mahogany being 
especially rare and desirable. When new it has a 
reddish yellow tone, which grows dark and rich with 
age. The old wood is much in demand for use in 
interior finishings and for furniture, and the genuine 
old pieces are highly prized by their possessors. 
Cherry is popular for common use, though at first 
falsified by the red stain, which destroyed its natural 
beauty and gave it no artificial excellence. Unstained 
cherry has a yellowish brown color, polishes well, and 
is excellent for interior woodwork, its moderate cost 
making it available for general use, though now getting 
very scarce. If any stain is required, it should be in 
the dark tones resembling mahogany color. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 15 

Black birch is one of the most beautiful native 
woods, having a grain resembling that of mahogany, 
and taking a fine satin-like polish. Unstained, it has 
a warm, rich yellow tone, and its darkened finish can 
hardly be distinguished from the more costly tropical 
wood. Yellow birch, though less beautiful and costly, 
is excellent in grain and color and is often used for 
fine floorings. The different varieties of oak are well 
adapted to interior uses, the wood being solid and 
durable, while each year of wear adds a depth and 
richess of color and a smoothess and polish to its dark 
surface. It has a beautiful grain, and is a popular 
wood for interior finishings and the floors of modern 
houses. After centuries of wear this useful wood is 
found in the houses of both humble and royal history 
as black and smooth as ebony. Butternut resembles 
oak in color, though not in grain, polishes finely and 
takes a carved decoration well, and ash and elm are 
often found as deceptive substitutes for oak, especially 
in its darker or so-called antique stains. Rosewood is 
one of the most beautiful woods in use, rich and deep 
in tone and capable of a mirror-like finish. It is costly 
enough to keep the merit of rarity. 

Apple wood carves finely and polishes well, making 
excellent panels; so also does the wood of the pear 
tree. Maple is in high favor, bird's-eye maple being 
one of the choicest of the light-colored woods, and 
especially suited to dainty and sumptuous uses. 
Chestnut and ash are serviceable and inexpensive 
light woods. 

As these woods come into more general use, their 
genuineness and elegance giving to the houses in which 
they are placed one of the strongest assurances of that 
permanency which is the best element of the new 



i6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Renaissance, they will be more and more enriched with 
ornament. And here it will be difficult to a\oid the 
besetting sin of abundant means and inartistic taste, 
which unfortunately are so often found in company. 
The honesty of material and the uses which it serves 
should never be concealed under complex decoration. 
Most hardwoods are beautiful enough in grain and 
color to give lasting satisfaction, and for every-day 
use no decoration beyond a touch of good carving 
should be applied. Where something more sumptuous 
is sought, carving and inlaying will make them elegant 
enough to satisfy the most exacting taste, and when 
properly varnished or polished no other method of 
decoration can excel it in beauty or refinement. 

I have deemed the foregoing introduction necessary, 
as it will enable the workman to have some idea of the 
development of the art of joinery, and the transition 
from the use of pine and the softer wood to that of 
the hard wood. 

In the following, it is my intention to take each of 
the woods most in use; describe them, say what I 
think they are best adapted for, and the best way to 
finish them, as far as my knowledge extends. By this 
means the reader will have, under one head, all the 
book contains concerning the particular wood he is 
about tu finish 

THE BETTER WOODS TO MAKE USE OF 

The wood most made use of at the present writing 
for interior finish, is oak. It is made into doors, 
sashes, stairs, base, cabinet cases, and wainscot. 

The working of oak, particularly in the framing up 
of panel-work, differs somewhat from ordinary pine or 
other soft wood panel-work, inasmuch as the latter is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



17 



generally painted and picked out in two or more colors; 
thus rendering it imperative to use sound stuff, and to 
have the work above suspicion. The material is 
generally so thin that the paneling should be stiffened 
with stout canvas glued to the back, which is often 
primed with red-lead paint to afford protection from 






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Fig. I 



Fia 2 



damp when the work is to be placed in a new building. 
It is usual to frame up the work with stuff varying in 
thickness from seven-eighths of an inch to one and a 
quarter inches, finished sizes. In some workshops it is 
not considered necessary to clean up the back of the 
work, though I think it always best to dress down the 



i8 



THE UP-TO-DAie 



joints on the back, and true it up with plane and 
straight-edge. All joints should be close and perfect, 
and tenons and mortises should be in the center of the 

stuff, and all should be well glued 
together and left to dry before 
fixing. 

The panel-work shown in Fig. 
I is framed with i}( in. stuff, got 
to thickness and widths as shown 
in Fig. 2. The center framing is 
mitered together at the corners, 
which are further strengthened by 
the insertion of a cross-tongue 
joint, while the side rails and top 
and bottom muntins are tenoned 
and pinned like all the other ten- 
ons in the framing. The moulding 
stuck on the edges (or in the solid) 
is not mitered in the same way as 
for ordinary work (see Figs. 3 and 
4); but the mitered corners are 
worked as shown in Figs. 5 
and 6, thus forming butt joints 
with mason-mitered corners to all 
moulded edges. These corners are 
worked on the bench after the 
paneling is glued up and cleaned 
off. 

The bottom rail is tongued into the skirting as shown 
in Fig. 8, and the top rail meets the festooned frieze 
board under the small necking mould as shown, the 
frieze board being tongued to the dentiled cornice 
also. This cornice is double-dentiled, one row of 
dentils being cut farther back than the other, as shown 




FiG. 6 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



19 



in Figs. 7 and 8. As usual with built-up cornices, this 
section can be worked on the four-cutter moulder or 
on a spindle machine^ the dentiling, however, being 




Fia 7 



best cut by hand. A cover-board lies at the back of 
the cornice, which is back rebated to receive the front 
edge of the cover-board. The three flutes over the 
top muntins have rounded-out top ends, and finish at 



20 'F«E UP-TO-DATE 

the bottom on a splay; whilst the festoons are pref- 
erably cut out of the solid, but are generally planted 
on unless otherwise specified. 

In fixing this class of work, which is, as a rule, 
screwed up, all fixing screws should be hidden, or the 
holes should be bored to take "corks" a little larger 
than the screw head, and the "corks" should be cut 
from wood closely matching that in which the hole is 
bored. The framing must be fixed as true and upright 
as possible (especially at external corners where 
mitered vertical joints occur), and be well scraped and 
cleaned down after the fixing is done. 

The illustrations are reproduced to the following 
scales: Figs, i and 2 are three-eighths of an inch to 
the foot; Figs. 3 to 6, half full size; Figs. 7 and 8, one 
and a half inches to the foot. 

While it is not the intention to enter into the sub- 
ject of joinery in this work, it will not be out of place 
to make a few remarks on the manner of doing some 
odd jobs of work that are not generally discussed in 
books of this kind, or if discussed, are not done so 
with a view of showing how the wood should be pre- 
pared for the polisher. The examples given in the 
foregoing are only offered as an illustration of how 
similar work should be prepared when made from 
solid wood. Where the work is composed of material 
"built up" or veneered, the manner of preparing it for 
the finisher may be very different, but this I will dis- 
cuss later on. 

Suppose a column, or a pillar or spindle is required 
having a spiral form; unless the workman is well 
acquainted with the method of laying out spirals, he 
will be up against a proposition which he will find 
difficult to solve. To meet a condition of this kind, I 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



21 



-<1^ 



show the following method of setting out such work. 
This example is intended to be prepared for the lathe, 
but, of course, it may be executed without the aid of 
a lathe, but in such case much patience and skill will 
be required. 

The sketch Fig. 9 shows the method of 
setting out the twist or spiral. First turn 
the wood round; then divide the circum- 
ference into four with lines, as shown, 
marked all the way down. Then, having 
decided on the size of your twist — and the 
same details apply to any size and depth 
— mark the cross-lines, and then the diag- 
onals, which you can easily do with a 
twist of the leg in the lathe, and both sides 
as shown by dotted lines. The gouge, 
held in this direction, will follow the re- 
quired twist. It is supposed the operator 
is acquainted with lathe work to some 
extent, and is aware of the methods and 
appliances made use of in turning spirals, 
a^id the sketch is only intended to instruct 
him in the manner of laying out the spiral. 
This will be found useful even in work 
where the column, etc., is not turned in a 
lathe, but is wrought by hand. 

Handwork of almost every kind in 
woodwork is rapidly going out of fashion 
— more the pity — but now and again, men 
are found who insist on having their work done by 
hand, and it is well that every joiner should know how 
to go about the work with intelligence when such 
work is required. With this idea in view, I give here- 
with a few instructions and illustrations to help the 



Fio. 9» 



22 THE UP-TO-DATE 

workman when he is confronted with problems such as 
I have indicated. 

Often dovetailing — an almost lost art — has to be 
done by hand on some particular job or piece of work, 
and, in order to prepare the workman for this pur- 
pose, I offer the following- instructions, and give the 
accompanying illustration, which I think will materially 
aid him in his efforts. 

Dovetailing to a great many young workmen proves 
a pitfall, yet, when the method of laying out the work 
is once understood, it all seems easy enough. A 
dovetail joint, if made properly, requires no screws or 
nails, to hold it together or to bring the parts 
down to a proper joint; but in order to attain per- 
fection there are one or two points which must 
be attended to when making this kind of joint. 
First, the stuff must be faced up properly, using 
the tr}^ing plane, on the flat surface. In passing, 
I will just mention that in dovetailing, whether 
boxes, drawers, or whatever is being made, the face 
side is always the ifiside^ and the face edge is the bot- 
tom edge. 

Another point which is often neglected is to put in 
plenty of "pins" or dovetails. A very good rule for 
ordinary work in soft wood is to space them not less 
than i}^in., or more than 2^in., from center to center; 
for hard wood, or for small work in thin wood, they 
should be spaced closer still. 

In setting out the pins, or rather the mortises in 
which the pins have to fit, a half dovetail should be 
placed at both top and bottom, as shown in ¥\g. lo, 
and the intermediate "tails" should be brought to an 
extreme point as shown at B in the drawings — that is, 
if neatness is an object; but if this has to give way to 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



23 




Fig. 10 



strength, then "tails" of the shape shown in Fig. 11, 
should be used. 

The bevels of the "tails" should be as shown in the 
drawings, and in no case should they be shaped as at 
M, Fig. 14. If 
made like that, 
there would be 
great danger of 
the sides split- 
ting off at E, 
and although 
this shape at 
first sight would 
appear to be 
stronger than 
the other,' it is 
really not so in 

practice. Also if one, two or three, or even more 
articles of the same size are being made, the dove- 
tails need not be set out on one piece only. The 
whole could be placed together in pairs as shown in 

Fig. 12, and the marks 
squared over as shown, then 
screwed in the vise together, 
and all cut at once with a 
fine tenon or back-saw, first 
of all sawing all the pieces 
off to exactly the same 
length. 
To mark the pins, screw one of the ends upright in 
the bench vise, with the top end about half an inch 
above the bench top, as at F, Fig. 13, taking care to 
keep the face side toward the bench. Then lay one of 
the sides on it, as at G, so that the squarcd-over marks 




Fig. 11 



24 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 12 



on the edges of G coincide with the inside of F, as at 

H. With the front end of the same saw as was used to 

cut the "tails," 
"^ y'i y7 yi yy^ used as shown at 

I, mark the po- 
sition of each 
one on the end 
grain, and, be- 
fore removing 
the side board, 
n u m b e r each 
piece as shown 
in the figure so 
that it is known 
which pieces go 
together. 
All four corners of each job in hand must be done in 

the same wa}', unless perhaps the work is for drawers or 

where the front 

only is required 

to be d o V e- 

tailed, although 

particular no- 
tice must be 

taken that the 

face side of the 

vertical piece 

must be towards 

the bench, and 

the horizontal 

piece under- 

neath; and in 

addition remember that the face edges of both pieces 

must always come together. These are the edges which 




Fig. 13 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



25 



must be kept level while marking. Neglect of these 
points is the reason of failure to produce good work 
when making dovetailed joints. 

In cutting the "pins" some regard must be paid to 
the kind of wood being used; soft pine requires more 
wood left outside the marks than oak or other hard- 
woods, but tak- 
ing ordinary 
work in any of 
the softer 
woods, about a 
sixty - fourth of 
an inch clear on 
each side of the 

mark will be ample, leaving rather less at the two half 
dovetails at the edges. 

I should have stated before that in cutting off the 
stuff for the ends of the box (or whatever is in hand) 
about half an inch extra length should be allowed, and 
in squaring across, this extra length should be given 
to the pin at each end, to be cut when the job is put 
together. 

Before the pins are sawed down, the marks on the 

outside (that is, 
B B c 




FiG. 14 



D 



O 



C 



Fig. 15 



where they 
come to a point) 
must be squared 
down as a guide 
for sawing parallel with the edges of the boards. This 
is a somewhat important part, and in Fig. 14 I have 
endeavored to show how they should and should not be 
cut. The "pin" K is parallel from point to heel, and 
this is correct, but not easy to manage. The "pin" at 
L is cut wedge-shaped, larger at the heel than at the 



26 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



point, which is bad, being liable to split the- boards, 
and also to show a badly fitting joint outside. M is 
cut slightly smaller at the heel than at the point, which 
is a good fault — there is no fear of splitting, and, unless 
overdone, a good fitting joint will result. N is cut out 
of parallel, which is the worst of all, and must on no 
account be done. 

All the pins being cut, the spare wood must be cut 
out, using very thin, sharp chisels. Some workers use 
a bow saw to remove the spare wood between the 
pins, but I do not consider it any advantage — the 
chisel has to be used after, and it is quicker to remove 
^^^x\ 'ill the wood with the chisel at one time. 
l\y \ I must not forget to emphasize the fact 

that it is necessary, in setting out, to use 
knife or chisel for all cross lines, both on 
the sides and ends. Pencil will not do 
at all, if good work is expected. 

Before putting together, each "pin" 
must be slightly pointed on all three sides, 
as shown in Fig. 15, so that they will enter freely, 
without bruising the wood. 

When putting together, the "pins'' should be well 
glued and the sides driven on at once, using a block 
which is large enough to reach quite across the whole 
work. If this is omitted, splitting is apt to result. 
I have not touched upon putting the work together, 
as I do not think it necessary, because when the 
dovetails and "pins" are properly cut, they will be 
found to go together without any paring or cutting. 
Indeed, dovetails of an}- kind requiring fitting before 
going together may be put down as a botch job and 
unfit to be further finished. 

In this, I have dealt only with simple work, but 




Fig. IG 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



27 




Fig. 17 



there are other kinds of dovetailing, and I present 
several of them below. 

In the figure shown at 17, the end view of a "lap 
dovetail" is represented, a style which is well known 
to every joiner who is familiar with drawer making. 
The method is the same 
as described as regards 
the sides, but the ends 
of the front are gauged 
on a certain distance, 
which should, if possi- 
ble, be the same as the 
thickness of the sides, 
and the dovetails are 

stopped at the gauge mark. The method of marking 
is the same as before, and the only difference is 
in cutting the "pin," which has to be done largely 
with the chisel, as the saw can only be used to start 

them with. 

The appearance of the 
"pins" when cut is shown in 
Fig. 18, and those who can 
do the ordinary dovetailing 
will have nodifficulty in mak- 
ing the "lap" dovetail. 

In Fig. 19 is shown what 
is sometimes called "secret," 
but it is really double lap 
dovetailing. One part is 
done as shown in the figure, making the mortises 
the same size as the pins, and cutting them as shown. 
The corresponding member is worked as in Fig. 
17, the necessary marking being done as in Fig. 13, 
and marking round point, then cutting them out with 



jr M' 'W''T W \ 



m 



m 



]m 



m 



Fig 18 



28 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



saw and chisel. The appearance of this when done is 
shown in Fig. 20, which is the one marked A, at the 
side, and Fig. 21, on the top edges; and as will be 
readih' understood, very careful work is necessar\' in 



Sec ret Lap Dove tailing 





Fig. 19 



Fig 20 



order to make a good job, and, presuming this, the 
joint is as strong as the ordinary dovetail. 

By mitering the top edges, as in Fig. 22, the 
appearance of this part is as Fig. 23, and if done 
properly is an improvement. It does not add much 
to the difificulty of making the joint. 

Secret dovetailing proper is a difficult job for any 
but an experienced man to undertake, but I will deal 





Fig. 21 



Fig. 22 



with it later on if space permits. It makes a good 
strong joint if done well, and the appearance is the 
same as a mitered joint. 

Sometimes the end of the drawers, as shown in Fig. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



29 



N-^^^^'^^^- ^^V^ 




::^^:^?n S 



Fig. 33 



23, is rounded off as shown in Fig. 22, and when such 
is the case, the drawer projects from the face of the 
framework as shown by the dotted lines. 

In order to enable the workman to bt,tter under- 
stand the whole theory of dovetailing, I present here- 
with a couple of sketches 
which show how secret lap 
dovetailing maybe executed 
in several ways. Figs, ig 
and 24 show how the pins 
and mortises are laid out 

when the pins are simply no more than a square tenon. 
Secret lap dovetailing is used for a great variety of 
objects, such as sewing machine covers, instrument 
cases, etc. Where the dovetails require to be hidden 
it is not so important that the joint should be at an 
angle, as the corners can be rounded up to the joint. 
The difference between secret and plain lap dovetailing 
is that in the secret method the pins are shortened 

and the dovetails not 
cut through, as shown 
in Figs. 17 and 18, and 
when put together, in 
Fig. 22. 

Miter dovetailing, 
Figs. 25 and 26, is a 
much more intricate 
operation, and calls 
for greater care on the part of the workman. After 
carefully planing up the wood to a thickness, first 
gauge on the inside only the thickness of the lap on 
the end, remembering that the gauge for the lap will 
also be the gauge by which the ends of the pins and 
dovetails will be shortened, as shown in Fig. 27, where 




Fig. 24 



30 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



the dotted lines show the manner in which each piece 
must be rebated. After rebating, cut the pins, then 
mark the dovetails and chop them out, after which 
proceed to miter the laps on both pieces and cut the 



PI it re Dovetailing 



rt%%%%m 





Fig. 25 



Fig. 26 



miter across the edge, and, if neatly done, the joint 
will go together at the first trial. 

Bevel or splay dovetailing is much more difficult 
than any of the preceding, and is not so generally 
known. The required bevel being given, proceed as 
follows: First joint the ends to the required bevel, 
then, without changing the angle, joint the 
bottom edge to the same bevel as the ends, 
working from the inside. Now comes the 
most important part of the operation. The 
ends must be beveled on the thickness of 
the wood. This is obtained by laying the 
blade of the square on the beveled bottom 
edge, then shooting the ends to the square, 
working still from the inside of the wood. 
If this part is omitted, the result will be 
that when the job is put together it will be not only 
open on the inside but will not be level on the out- 
side — more or less, according to the angle of the 
sides. Gauge on the thickness of the wood as for 




Fig. 27 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 31 

plain dovetailing. In cutting the pins, a center line 
through these should be parallel with the bevel of the 
bottom edge as shown in Fig. 28, and not cut square 
to the inside of the job as in plain dovetailing. If 
this be neglected, and the angle is much, the dove- 
tails will be cut across the grain, and have no strength. 
After marking the pin with a marking point, before 
cutting the dovetails, mark them across the ends also, 
parallel to the bevel of the bottom edge as in Fig. 29, 

Bevel Bovjt failing 





Fig. 28 Fig. 29 

and cut accordingly. I would strongly advise the 
workman who has never made a bevel dovetail to try 
it upon two pieces of wood, as more will be learned 
from a little practice when the difficulties have to be 
surmounted than from any amount of study. 

The illustrations shown in Figs. 30 and 31 will 
convey to the reader a better idea of lap and miter 
dovetail than the previous ones. Fig. 30 shows the 
finished corner, the face of the work being shown at 
F. This may be rounded off if it is so desired. Fig. 
31 shows a corner all ready to be driven together, 
which will have a mitered lap. AA shows both front 
and side; the shaded laps show the miters. 

Another style of bevel dovetailing is shown in Fig. 
32, where the pins are at right angles with the line of 



3^ 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



slope as shown at AA and 151^. This style of dove- 
tailing is well adapted for trays, hoppers and similar 
work. All stuff intended to be used in bevel or 
splayed work, that is to be dovetailed, must be pre- 
pared with butt joints before the dovetails are laid out. 
Joints of this kind ma\' be made common, lapped ( r 




Vic. 30 




Fig. 31 



mitered. In making the latter, much skill and labor 
will be required. 

In making veneered doors there are a number of 
different methods practiced by workmen, but it is not 
in the province of this work to describe them all, or 
indeed, any of them at great length, but when a 
number of \ eneered doors are to be made at one time, 
the following method, which is adopted in some large 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



33 



factories, may offer some suggestions that may be 
found useful: 

The first operation is to take common coarse white 
pine boards, with sound knots, and which hav^e been 
well kiln-dried, the stock used being generally i6 feet 
long, IXI2 inches, and surface it on both sides by a 
Daniels planer without regard to thickness. Some 
boards are thinner than others, while others are 
warped in drying, and the thickness of the boards is 




Fig. 32 



immaterial, perfectly seamed surfaces only being 
necessary. After the stock is planed it is cut into 
such lengths as the bill of doors calls for. They are 
ready now to be glued up. The face board, of what- 
ever hardwood is to be used, is planed generally to ^ 
inch thick, and is also run through a Daniels planer. 
The stock is now ready to go to the gluing press, and 
as the Daniels planer makes the best gluing surface in 
the world, no scratch planing is needed. After 
properly heating in a box the stock is brought out and 
carefully glued, the hardwood face parts being marked 
for it. From three to five parts are put in the press at 



34 THE UP-TO-DATP: 

one time, and a pressure of 20 tons, brought down by 
screws, is put upon these parts. After remaining in 
the press the proper time they are taken out, and 
generally remain several days before being worked up, 
which gives the glue plenty of time to harden. When 
ready to work again these parts are taken to a Daniels 
planer and squared up, after which the parts are taken 
to a very nice cutting table or bench saw, and are 
cut up to sizes required, leaving them yi inch large 
for future dressing. It is a positive necessity that the 
saw cuts free and clear, as heating has a tendency to 
warp the stock or spring it slightl)% which would make 
it necessary to dress the stuff again. If the saw does 
not heat, the stiles come out perfectly straight, and 
these stiles can be laid on a Daniels planer bed and a 
light shaving taken off. They are now straight, and 
if the saw table is in good condition, square; the other 
side may be finished with pony planer or with a Daniels. 
A Daniels is preferred, because it makes a better gluing 
surface. The work is now ready for the veneering, 
the thickness of which is immaterial, as it may vary 
from the thickness of thin paper to }{ inch. Heated 
cauls are now used for the veneer, and the stiles, if 
heated at all, are just warmed and the veneer glued on 
by piling up with a hot caul between each stile. The 
old-fashioned way of making veneered doors may do 
very well when only two or three doors are to be made, 
but in these days of sharp competition, manufacturers 
are obliged to adopt the quickest methods compatible 
with efficiency and good finish. 

The doors or other work — for this method will apply 
to wainscot or any similar work — should be placed in a 
dry room for a day or two, when they may be finished 
up and made ready for the polisher or varnisher. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



35 



If first-class doors are required, It is always better to 
build up the stuff for the stiles and rails, and glue 
them together before they are veneered. A white 
pine door is about the onh^ door that can be made 
successfully from solid wood. In a house with, say, a 
dozen doors, what other wood is there that will abso- 
lutely hold its place during 
a reasonabie period? Cer- 
tainly yellow pine will not 
do it. A solid oak door is 
a pest, and should not be 
put in a house except un- 
der written instructions. 
Sycamore cannot be used 
solid, and certainly neither 
gum nor maple. Possibly 
walnut or butternut might, 
but who would think of 
using them under present 
conditions? 

The door shown in Fig. 
33 is an illustration of one 
of the most serviceable 
doors made. The section 
of stile shown in Fig. 34 
will give an idea of the 

manner in which the stiles and rails are built up; the 
veneer showing on the outside, also the panel. 

Work of this kind may be used outside as well as 
for inside, and no one need fear unpainted white pine 
or oak for outside work. There is in Europe abundance 
of woodwork, exterior and interior, that has not been 
tickled by a brush in over five hundred years. All the 
native Swiss cottages are unpainted on the exterior. 




Fig. 33 



36 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



All of the half-timber houses of France, no matter 
how richl\' decorated by the great artists of the chisel, 
are unpaintcd, and we have known of work in white pine 
and quartered white oak without the use of paint which 
has been in existence for centuries untouched by paint, 
and time justified the experiment. Nothing is more 
beautiful than the natural grain of the wood and its 
natural weathering under a proper transparent finish. 
It takes some courage to organize and push through 
an innovation of this kind, and one is beset 
by many warnings, but the beautiful result 
justifies the effort. 

The following method of making veneered 
doors was described by H. T. Gates in "The 
Woodworker'' some time ago. It will doubt- 
less be found of much benefit to workmen 
employed in factories where veneered doors 
are made in quantities. The hints and sug- 
gestions are to the point, and the instruc- 
^^ tions are clear and may be readily under- 
stood. The subject of veneered doors is 
one that has often been discussed of late 
and much light on it has been thrown, yet it will 
not suffer, if the subject is again brought forward, 
inasmuch as the various factories have particular ways 
of their own of producing this rapidly growing popu- 
larity in the door line. Instead of trying to lay down 
any fixed rule, saying thus and so shall they be made, 
let us consider some of the essential points which may 
be adapted to suit each condition as the manufacturer 
finds it. 

I. Equipment. — Aside from the usual door-making 
machinery, <this consists of larger facilities for preparing 
and applying glue, veneer press, resaw for veneers and 




Fig. 34 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



37 




Fig. 35 



panels (unless they are purchased from a dealer in 
veneers), a warm room where the glue may be applied 
and material gotten ready for the press. Unless the 
factory is already supplied with a large kettle for 
preparing glue, it will be found of advan- 
tage to make a large copper kettle that 
will fit the holes in the heater, but large 
enough to hold three or four ordinary- 
sized kettles of liquid glue. This can be 
done by making it higher and wider about 
the flange, as shown in Fig. 35. In this 
way sufficient glue may be made ready for a good-sized 
batch of doors without fear of running out. 

Of course, these remarks do not apply to the factory 
having modern glue-spreaders, hand or power-feed, 
which are very essential in strictly veneer establish- 
ments. Our remarks apply only to the shop where 
veneered doors are one of the many by-products, so 
to speak, which accompany the usual line of mill 
work. 

For spreading the glue by hand, procure a 4-inch flat 
wall brush and prepare it by pouring alcohol gum- 
shellac into the roots of the bristles, and driving blind 
staples into the butt end, as close 
together as possible, thus preventing 
the bristles from coming out. Have 
a pair of "horses" about 3 feet high, 
strongly made, and having an angular 
piece on the top, to prevent waste of 
the glue, and squeezing it off the work 
at the bearing point — see Fig. 36. 
Make the veneer press wide enough between the 
uprights to permit of veneering a table top or wide 
panel if needed, and have two rows of screws, so that 



d^ • 


^ 


1 


^ 



Fig. 36 



38 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



two stacks of cores ma)' be pressed at one time. A 
strong press can be made with 6x6-inch maple 
cross-pieces and ^-inch round iron rods, with jambnuts 
to hold the upper piece in place, having regular 

veneer press screws at 



ifli 



°^°^. 



ini 



BecL.-:, 



6x6 Aiop/e 



iQl 



'Screws^ 



^^ 



Cores 



a, 



TUT 



6x6 Maple 



End Miew 

Fig. 37 



TLU 



least i^ inches diam- 
1 e t e r. The bedpiece 

should be lagged up and 
trued, so that it will be 
straight and out of 
wind. To prevent the 
work from sticking to 
77/7 nwtfr. the bed, it should be 
covered on the top with 
] zinc or tin — see Fig. 37. 

For resawing veneers 
and panels, where there 
is no band resaw, a 
gauge (Fig. 38) and pressure roller (Fig. 39) used on 
the band saw table, and i^-inch saw in proper trim, 
with right management should turn three or four 
veneers out of inch stock, which may be applied direct 
to the coring without dressing, as described later on. 

To do a good job of gluing to advantage it is 
necessary to have a warm 
room, so that a large batch 
of material may be worked 
at one time. There are \"a- 
rious other purposes to which 
this room may be put, but 
to make a veneered door properly, without waste 
material or lost time, a warming room is very essen- 
tial. First, the parts of wood to be glued must be 
thoroughly warm; also the temperature of the room 




Fig. 38 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



39 



Cord- 



V 



J±^.^' 



Pressure 
Vfo//er 



i\ 



T 



\Neight 



TableTop 



Fig. 39 



where the work is to be done must be such as not to 
chill the glue and hinder its spreading and making 
good joints. 

It is taken for 
granted that our fac- 
tory has a hand jointer, 
pony planer, mortiser, 
tenoner, sticker, door 
clamp and drum sand- 

er. It is a question whether veneered doors can be 
profitably made without the few essentials here enumer- 
ated, and where they are made in quantities, special 
machinery for spreading glue, cutting mouldings, 
presses, clamps, panel-raisers, etc., will be needed. 

II. Materials. — Dry coring is the first thing that is 
required to make good doors. It is usual to cut up the 
material and put it in the dry (or warm) room referred 
to above, or in a dry-kiln, properly stacked, and leave 
it there as long as possible to drive out every par- 
ticle of dampness. All waste material of suitable 
size and too poor to be used for any other pur- 
pose may be used for coring. It is preferable to 
have the strips wide enough so that when 
c glued up they may be split through the 
Cut center to make two stiles or rails — see 
Fig. 40 — thereby saving much labor in 
gluing, which item cuts quite a figure in 
veneered door work. The stock sawyer 
can lay aside such material from time to time and have 
it stored as mentioned, so that there is a supply of 
dry stuff to draw on when a batch of doors is wanted. 
The glue for coring need not be of high grade, and 
where quick preparation is desired, a ground or 
pulverized bone glue will answer the purpose admi- 



FiG. 40 



40 THE UP-TO-DATE 

rably. The men soon become accustomed to handling 
the glue and it needs no soaking, as the flake or 
noodle glue does. For veneering a medium grade of 
hide-stock glue is to be preferred; one that is free from 
acid, clear in color, and not too quick-setting. It will 
pay to follow up the glue question more closely than 
we usually have done to obtain good results with 
economy. The glue for veneering does not want to 
be too thick. Practice in the work makes the work- 
man proficient in its preparation. It should flow freely 
from the brush without being "tacky," as the painter 
would say. 

The veneers and panels should be cut up and 
resawed before they are kiln-dried. The ends should 
be glue-sized, and they should be stacked straight and 
even in the kiln. Those who have tried resawing kiln- 
dried hardwoods, are aware of what a sorry job it 
makes; and how the veneers buckle, spring out of 
shape, pinch the saw or make it run crooked. When 
the saw has not too much set, the veneers may be 
glued onto the cores without planing, pro\aded the 
sawing is a good, smooth job. Care must be taken 
in dressing veneers or panels, not to chip them out, as 
that is ruinous in this class of work. 

III. Construction. — The man who is doing this 
work needs to be familiar with the work and its 
methods to do it well and economically. Filling the 
doors is the first work towards the desired end. A 
list of the size, style, thickness of doors and kinds of 
wood should be on each working bill, and follow the 
material in its progress out of chaos into stiles, rails, 
panels and finally the finished product. This bill 
should include the edge strips, the width, length and 
thickness of each bundle of cores, the finished size of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 41 

the parts they are intended to make, and the number 
and both the sawing and finished size of veneers and 
panels. 

After the sawyer has the material cut, and it is 
thoroughly dry, the one who does the gluing assembles 
the cores, puts them on the heating coil and prepares 
his core glue; the pieces are spread on the horses and 
given a coating of glue, assembled in batches, and put 
into the press, the surplus glue being squeezed out by 
this process, which includes putting the edge strips 
on each stile requiring one. 

After they have been allowed to set sufficiently, 
they are taken to the jointer and the straightest side 
trued up. If they are built-up for making two pieces, 
they are resawed and again jointed and thickened to 
desired size on the pony planer. 

They are now ready for veneering. They are again 
put in the warm room over the coils; when warm, 
they are put on the horses as before, and spread with 
glue on both sides; a bottom board is first laid and 
then the veneers and cores stacked in regular order. 
The veneers must previously be carefully looked over, 
poor ones culled out, and any pin holes, porous spots 
or checks covered by gluing a piece of paper over, to 
prevent two stiles from being stuck together by glue 
oozing through such spots. They are again pressed 
out, and when dry, trued and sized to width. They 
are now ready to be laid out, same as any blind-tenon 
door. 

The framing must be done in a first-class manner, 
with true joints and tight tenons. In fact, all machine 
work on veneered doors must be carefully done to 
have true work and tight joints. 

Instead of putting the panels in when the doors are 



.crCi: 



7m^^ 



4-' TIIK UP-TO-DATE 

put in the clamps, the framework is glued together 
with open panels, the stiles and rails being grooved, 
and after the doors are polished and put on the 
finishing bench, a panel strip is put in all around the 
edge of each ])anel, to which the panel mould is glued 
and nailed. The moulding is put in one side first, 

panels laid in, and moulded the 

other side, as shown in Fig. 41. 

This arrangement prevents the 
YiQ, 41 moulding from pulling away 

from the stiles, should the pan- 
els shrink, and allows enough play for the panels to 
keep straight with the natural working of the wood 
in the changes of the atmosphere. There is advantage, 
too, in gluing up the framework without the panels. 
This cannot be done in the case of solid moulded doors. 
The finish of a veneered door should be first-class; 
the panels, moulds and framework well sandpapered, 
and flat surfaces scraped smooth, as ever}^ defect seems 
magnified when the filler and varnish are applied. 

Special care should be taken not to scrape, scratch 
or mar the face of the doors in shipping. Many a 
good door has been injured by careless packing or 
handling in shipping, after the cabinetmaker has 
finished his job. They should be crated, if shipped 
on a railroad or by boat, or they will not be worth 
much on arrival at their destination. 

Wedged Doors. — The day of the wedged door has 
passed, and all modern-built houses contain what is 
known to the trade as "blind-tenon doors.'' The 
"dowel" door is practically a blind-tenon door. In 
plants where a set of dowel door machinery has not 
been installed, the problem of making these doors 
presents itself, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



43 



The advantages of this door are the saving of lumber 
on the rails, of time in laying out all stiles both sides 
and mortising them from both sides, the neat appear- 
ance of the stiles, especially on natural-finished work, 
and the ease with which they may be glued together. 

Several points must be kept in mind in order to 
secure success. Let the stock sawyer cut all rails 





Fig. 42 



ejcact, so the tenon will not touch the bottom of 
mortise before the shoulder is tight at the coping. 
The tenons should fit more snugly both sides and 
endways than in the old way, to hold well and make 
tight joints on the muntins. The glue should be 
applied to the mortise in such a way that it reaches 
the tenon, as well as the shoulders of rails and stiles, 
to make a strong job of the gluing. 

The cleaning out of chips from the mortise has been 
a difficult problem, and it is not yet solved satis- 
factorily. Chain-saw mortises obviate this, but they 
have their faults, too. The "lip" chisels. Fig. 42, 
clear out the loose chips, but leave the fine chips that 
are pounded down by the action of the chisel, to be 
removed. In order to do this, a long S-shaped chisel 
with large wooden handle, Fig. 43, is used. The 
blade is ^-inch wide, and tapers from o at the cutting 
edge to ^ or ^-inch at the handle. 

This is a slow, laborious job. An easier method is 



44 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



to use a twist drill bit in a horizontal boring machine, 
leaving the arbor in a fixed position and moving the 
stiles back and forth, both lengthwise and sidewise, 
by hand. The bit should not be quite as large as the 
mortise, so as not to enlarge it and make the tenons fit 




Fig. 43 



too loosely. Straight-flute bits, double-pointed bits, 
flat pieces of steel sharpened on edges and points, and 
various other patterns of cutters have been tried, and 
drills give the best satisfaction; only, they are easily 
broken. 

The doors should be framed and stood in a hot room 
for about a week, to dry out, When ready to glue 
together, they are warm and do not chill the glue as it 
is applied. The kind of glue has much to do with the 
rapidity with which doors may be glued up. Expen- 
sive glue is not required for this work, but a strong, 
qiiick-scttijig glue is needed, so that the doors do not 
have to remain too long in the clamp, thus retarding 
the work. A light-colored glue, having had a sufficient 
quantity of oxide of zinc mixed wMth it by the glue 
manufacturer, is the kind required. Using this, the 
man at the door clamp can take them out of the 
clamps about as fast as he can properly apply the glue, 
without their springing apart at the joints so as to 
require small clamps to hold them. 

Bear in mind, in making blind-tenon doors, you 
must have good machine work, dry lumber, snug fit 
to tenons, quick-setting glue, all applied in a good, 
sensible manner. The kinds of wood and styles of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



45 



doors both affect the results obtained, and must be 
made the subject of study in order to succeed. 

A good tool for rubbing out the surplus glue after 
the veneering has been put in place is shown in Fig. 
44. The rubbing part may be made out of an old plane 
iron, or from a worn-out scraper. 




THE CHOICE AND USE OF GLUE 

Glue is an article which plays an important part in 
carpentry. It is therefore to the interest of all to know 
how to choose a 
good article, and 
also how to use it ^'"""""''"""""^''■ 
properly for vari- l||||||||||||i||j!| 
ous kinds of work. 

First, as to how 
to recognize a good '^'^"'"'!1'"'4-ni"^ 
article. It is really Yig. 44 

useless to recom- 
mend Russian, Scotch, French, etc., as there are good 
and bad qualities of each, and we make as good glue 
in this country as anywhere in the world. Neither 
does the test of looking through the cakes at the 
light, and choosing those of only a bright color, 
apply in all cases, although it is a fairly good test 
with thin glue, that is, glue which is sold in thin 
cakes. The best test which the writer has found is 
to break a cake into two or three pieces, either by 
forcibly bending it, or by striking with the hammer. 
If the fractures present a smooth, even surface, the glue 
is poor in quality; but if, on the contrary, they pre- 
sent a ragged appearance, leaving any amount of 
sharp splinters, it is evidence of good quality, and may 



46 THE UP-TO-DATK 

be depended upon. The latter is to be preferred, as 
being best al^le to stand the damp weather without 
going mouldy and perishing. 

The best way to prepare glue for use is to break up 
sufficient to fill the inner vessel of the glue pot into 
small pieces, and fill the vessel with water. After 
soaking a few hours, the outer vessel can be filled with 
water, and allowed to boil. When this takes place, 
give the contents of the inner vessel a good stir 
occasionally until all is melted, when the glue should 
run off the brush freely, and be almost as thin to all 
appearances as good linseed oil. 

In gluing up joints of any description, or in repair- 
ing furniture, the great object is to get the wood into 
as close contact as possible before the glue begins to 
set; and the best way to manage this is to put on plenty 
of glue, boiling hot, and by means of pressure or by 
rubbing the parts together, to rub out as much as 
possible. The general idea is that a certain amount of 
glue must be left in a joint, and that it will hold best 
if it is reasonably thick. Greater mistakes were never 
made. The thinner the better, and the less left in the 
stronger the joint will be; therefore it follows that 
unless the parts to be joined fit closely together, a 
strong joint is impossible. 

The glue pot must be kept free from dust and damp, 
as glue which goes mouldy, or gets mixed with foreign 
matter, is useless; therefore, unless it is used fairly 
often, only a moderate quantity should be made at 
one time. 

The outer or water vessel of the glue pot should be 
large, so as to be capable of holding enough water to 
keep the glue hot long enough for any reasonable job. 
A small water vessel is a continual nuisance, owing to 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 47 

its continually boiling dry when making glue, and 
failing to hold the heat when using it. Therefore, 
when purchasing, do not get one which holds less than 
a quart of water at the least. The extra cost will be 
saved in a very short time. 

For large establishments where much glue is 
required, special appliances are provided, and may be 
obtained from most dealers in plumbers' goods. 

For glue to be properly effective it requires to 
penetrate the pores of the wood, and the more a body 
of glue penetrates the wood, the more substantial the 
joint will remain. Glues that take the longest to dry 
are to be preferred to those that dry quickly, the slow- 
drying glues being always the strongest, other things 
being equal. For general use no method gives such 
good results as the following: Break the glue up 
small, put into an iron kettle, cover the glue with 
water and allow it to soak twelve hours; after soaking, 
boil until done. Then pour it into an airtight box, 
leave the cover off till cold, then cover up tight. As 
glue is required, cut out a portion and melt in the usual 
way. Expose no more of the made glue to the 
atmosphere for any length of time than is necessary, 
as the atmosphere is very destructive to made glue. 
Never heat made glue in a pot that is subjected to the 
direct heat of the fire or a lamp. All such methods of 
heating glue cannot be condemned in terms too severe. 
Do not use thick glue for joints or veneering. In all 
cases work it well into the wood, in a similar manner 
to what painters do with paint. Glue both surfaces of 
your work, excepting in case of veneering. Never 
glue upon hot wood, as the hot wood will absorb all 
the water in the glue too suddenly, and leave only a 
very little residue, with no adhesive power in it. 



48 THE UP-TO-DATE 

REMARKS ON VENEERING 

A wood suit.iblc l(jr xciiccrinj^ requires to be 
thoroughly well seasoned, free from knots and shakes, 
and should not contain turps. The best of woods for 
the purpose are mahogany and American walnut, 
although good pine answers well for ordinary purposes. 
The surface, if flat, is carefully planed with the 
trying plane. It is then well toothed over with the 
toothing plane — first the lengthways of the wood and 
afterward the crossways — care being taken to tooth 
the work thoroughly. It }'ou are working pine, use a 
coarse toothing iron; if mahogan\' or other hardwood, 
a finer iron is requisite. If the wood presents a 
hollow or rounded surface, it is shaped with suitable 
planes, rasps and files, and finally well prepared cross- 
ways with coarse glass paper such as strong No. 2 or 
No. 2><. 

The next preparation is sizing. To make the size, 
take one part of good glue and boil it well with 50 
parts of water; then brush over the ground-work while 
hot; allow to dry, and, if there should be any defects 
in the ground-work, fill in with stopping. Make your 
stopping by mixing some finely ground plaster of Paris 
with hot glue and water, enough to form a moderately 
stiff paste. Then lay in where necessary with a chisel, 
taking care to allow for shrinkage; let it dry, thep 
level off with a rasp. 

Having sized the ground-work over, next proceed to 
the preparation of the veneer while it is drying. 
Look carefully to the wood before cutting it, and see 
that it is done in such a manner as to get the grain of 
it to the best advantage. Cut it rather larger than the 
surface it is intended to veneer, to allow for leveling 
at the ends and sides. Most veneers, such as mahog- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 49 

any, oak, chestnut, maple, sycamore, birch, satinwood 
and various other woods,, are ready for cutting as 
received from the merchant; but some., like burr 
walnut, brown oak, Amboyna, etc., present an uneven 
surface, called "backly. " When this is the case, 
damp one side with clear water, lay it down with its 
dry side upward, and put the wet side of the next 
veneer upon it, repeating the operation till all are 
done. Take particular care to keep each veneer, if 
there are more than three or four, in its proper order 
as you damp and turn over, and do not on any account 
get them mixed. Let the wood stand about four or 
five hours, then lay them out to allow to nearly dry 
and they will be ready for cutting out. 

The next process is flatting. Get two pieces of 
wood (dry, straight pine will answer), rather longer 
than the veneer, and heat them on a stove or before a 
bright fire; then place the veneer together between the 
hand screw, and allow it to remain for about half an 
hour; repeat this operation until the veneer is perfectly 
dry and thoroughly flat. 

Our wood is now ready for filling in. If it is per- 
fectly sound this operation is, of course, unnecessary; 
but it frequently happens, especially with burr walnut, 
that it contains holes that require filling. To do this, 
take a piece of the veneer (off the edges of that 
already cut out), and flat it precisely as the other. 
Select the part of it which matches best with the grain 
of the wood around the hole to be filled in. Place this 
underneath the hole. If you have a stamp rather 
larger than the hole, you may now cut it square or 
circular and the piece for filling it at the same time. 
If not, take an ordinary pocket knife having a sharp 
point and cut your hole and ven«eer the required shape. 



50 tup: UP-TO-DATE 

When you have filled in the wood, lay it on a flat 
board, then press the piece in with a hammer. If 
they are rather large use one or two finely pointed 
tacks to keep them in position. Now cover all the 
pieces with strips of paper, selecting a strong paper 
such as copy book or note paper for the purpose — one 
that is not too thick — and glue it on one side. Take 
care to use glue just thick enough to hold the wood in 
position. Pay particular attention to this, or it will 
cause a good deal of trouble. You will find it best to 
cut the paper in strips about i}^ to i^ inches wide. 
Lay it on a board to glue and smooth it over your 
veneer with a damp rag. 

Jointing. — We now procee ' to jointing. Place the 
veneer in the positior it will appear when laid. 
Observe that it matches. If you are to have one joint 
with two veneers or two joints with four veneers, see 
that the grain of the wood forms a figure having both 
sides alike. If the veneers have b en kept in their 
right or following order, this will not be difificult. If 
you are working a thick veneer (saw cut), make the 
joints with an iron plane or ordinary trying plane on 
the shooting board; if using thin veneer (knife cut), 
make them with a chisel and straight-edge. Take 
particular care to have the bevel edge of the chisel 
against the straight-edge when cutting or it will run, 
and you may come off with an ugly cut. Now put the 
jointed edges together on a deal board, and tack one 
edge down; put the tacks about ^ inch from the 
jointed edges and about 2}4 inches apart. Having 
tacked one piece down, put the other up to it and tack 
it in the same manner. Now cover all the joints with 
paper, glue together in the same manner as pre- 
viously mentioned in the filling in; smooth it well down 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 51 

with a damp rag and allow to dry. If the weather is 
hot it is best to cover your joints to prevent them 
drying too quickly. A good and simple method is to 
lay your board with the veneer downward on the floor. 
Let the joints dry, then take out the tacks and knock 
the head holes in with a hammer from the underneath 
side. Put the veneer aside until you are ready for 
laying it. It is best to cover it up and keep the air 
from it by placing it under a board or wrapper. 

There are two ways of laying veneer — by means of a 
caul or a veneering hammer. I shall describe both 
methods, although the first is of greater importance, 
and should, whenever practicable, be adopted, but in 
certain cases which I shall mention the second is 
extremely useful. 

Veneering by Caul. — First make a caul, then take a 
piece of well-seasoned cedar or pine, rather larger than 
the surface intended to cover (about I inch to i^ 
inches each way), and plane it up true on both sides, 
if the work is flat. If otherwise, make it to the 
requisite shape to fit the work, hollow, round, or 
whatever it may be. If it is necessary to shape the 
caul, use thicker stuff, and it is advisable to screw on 
two or three battens on the back. When making 
shaped cauls it is best at the same time to get out the 
pieces of wood necessary to form a flat surface when 
the wood is put in the caul. Thus, suppose we wanted 
to veneer a door having a rounded surface on one 
side and a hollow one on the other. We have made 
a hollow caul to correspond with the rounded surface 
having its under side flat. Now put the rounded side 
of the door in the caul and shape your piece of wood, 
rounding it to fit the hollow side. They should be 2 
inches wide — the same width or a little larger than the 



52 THE UP-TO-DATE 

caul, and 5 inches or 6 inches apart. If one side only 
of the wood is shaped these woods are unnecessary. 
If the wood is not wide enough, make a good joint, 
dowel it together, and take it to pieces for heating. 
The caul, if likely to be^ much in use, should be 
covered with zinc. Cut the metal out large enough 
to cover the face of it, with sufficient to turn over the 
edges and ends, and fasten it on with flat-headed zinc 
or copper nails. 

Numerous failures in unaccustomed hands may be 
ascribed to bad glue. Nothing but the very best glue 
should be used for veneering. Get the very best 
glue you can, break it up and boil thoroughly. It 
differs so much in strength that the proportion of 
water cannot be given, but after breaking up in pieces 
just cover with water and allow it to soak; then boil 
off with frequent stirring. It will, if good, now 
require about half as much water as previously added 
to bring it to the right consistence for veneering. It 
should be spread evenh^ with the brush and be free 
from lumps. Having made the caul and prepared the 
glue, get the hand screws and cramps to commence 
laying. Heat the caul on a stove or before a bright 
fire. If it is to be doweled together, and if it is more 
convenient, take it to pieces, taking care to mark your 
joints first. If you intend laying two similar pieces of 
veneer on flat surfaces, heat both sides of it and do both 
pieces together. If not, get one side of it well heated, 
as hot as you can without letting it burn. While it is 
heating, set the hand screws and cramps open as near 
the distance as you will require them, and place handy 
for the work. Now glue the ground-work well, and 
if the veneer shows any signs of being backly glue it 
slightly on the underneath side, as this will help to 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 53 

soften it. Having finished gluing, put the veneer on 
the work and smooth it over gently with the hand. 
Then see that the caul is hot enough, and that its 
surface is free from any small cinders or dirt. Now 
rub it over with a greasy rag, and lay it gently on your 
veneer. Draw the work and caul a little over the edge 
of the bench, just enough to get the hand screw on; 
put it on very gently, then tighten as much as 
possible. You can then stand it upon the floor, and if 
you have nobody to hold it for you rest the hand screw 
against the bench while you put on the remainder. 
They should be placed about 6 inches apart, and mind 
that they bite fairly. Do not get any screws tighter 
than the other, or you will only get the pressure at the 
Dutside and inside of the cramps. If you have a piece 
of work so wide that the screws will not reach the 
center from either side or the ends, get two pieces of 
wood 2 inches or 23^ inches thick and about the same 
thickness, plane them up, slightly rounding on one 
side, put their rounding sides facing each other on the 
work, and hand screw them at each end; they will 
then tighten in the middle and give sufficient pressure. 
Let the caul remain on for nearly an hour (in very hot 
weather longer will not hurt), then undo the hand 
screws, and if the caul sticks, insert the edge of a thin 
metal square, the back of a hand saw, or anything of 
a similar nature, between it and the veneer, and work 
it carefully about until you get them apart. If the 
glue has been used thick enough and the caul well 
greased, there will not be very much trouble, and they 
will often come apart themselves, or by giving the end 
of the caul a tap with the hammer, or on the end of the 
bench. See that the veneer is down. Feel it all over 
with the hand. If it is up you will be able to tell by 



54 THE UP-TO-DATE 

the hollow sound on tapping it with the tip of your 
finger, as well as by the raised appearance called blisters 
it will present when held to the light. If you heat 
your caul sufficiently, use the glue thick enough, and 
put the hand screws on properly, you will not be 
troubled with blisters. Should, however, there be 
any, let the work stand for one or two hours, and then 
put a smaller hot caul on when required until well 
down all over. 

To level the veneer, first lay it (veneer downward) 
on a board and scrape off with a chisel as much of the 
glue that has come over the edges as you can. Now 
put it on the bench screw, and level toward you, with 
the paring chisel if thin veneers; if thick, use a 
smoothing plane. Put it aside to dry. If you have 
two pieces of the same size put them with their veneer 
sides together; if only one, place it so that the air 
does not get to the veneer; allow to stand for two or 
three days, then scrape off the paper for filling in 
pieces and jointing with a chisel, having previously 
damped it with hot water. The work is now ready for 
sizing. This operation may be dispensed with, but it 
is decidedly advantageous, especially if working wood 
which has an open grain. The size, which should be 
about the same strength as that used for the ground- 
work, is brushed or rubbed over the veneer with the 
hand, then wiped off as dry as possible with a cloth. 

As has already been mentioned, this method is useful 
in certain cases. We" sometimes want to veneer an 
edge, to put a narrow slip of veneer on some small 
surface where it would be very inconvenient to caul it 
down. If you are working a wood of a glossy or 
greasy description, like satinwood or rosewood, its 
nature will not admit of sufificient pressure by this 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



55 



process, nor should it ever be adopted for work 
where water will act injuriously. I believe the pre- 
vailing opinion is that veneer requires a good deal of 
water to make it lie. In the first process, you will 
remember that it is laid quite dry. In the second 
process water is used, and if we consider that a damp 
surface tends to cause the wood to cast as it dries, we 
can readily understand where it should be used. 

Veneering Round and Tapering Columns. — Occasions 
often arise where it is desirable to veneer columns of 
varying size and shape, and just how to do the work 
to the best advantage is a question not always readily 
determined by the workman. 
In commenting upon this 
matter a well-known author- 
ity offers the following sug- 
gestions concerning tapering ^ — 
columns: 

"The success of this work 
depends entirely on the 
proper cauls. The spong- 
ing and gluing is the same as the work previously men- 
tioned. Take a circular column 3 or 4 inches in diameter, 
the core to be made of any suitable material. Pass a 
piece of paper around the core and make a straight 
joint through the center and we have the exact size of 
the veneer. A caul of tin with a cleat on each end for 
the purchase of the hand screws is to be made as in Fig. 
45, leaving the top open for an inch or more to give the 
glue a chance to escape. Apply the glue to the core and 
pass the veneer around it, not forgetting, however, to 
sponge the veneer before doing so. After screwing 
together, put the whole in the steam box to warm up the 
stiffened glue. After the work has become thoroughly 




'■'■'■n.ii.i.i.in.u.i.ii.i.i.i.i.iii.m.r 



Fig. 45 



56 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 46 



warm, take it out and give the hand screws a few turns, 
then lay it aside until the glue is set. Take off the 
hand screws and dispense with the tin cauls. The 

ends may then be 
brought together, as 
shown in Fig. 46, only 
the caul on the joint is 
to be heated. 

"Fig. 47 is a tapering 
column. The work is 
the same as above de- 
scribed, only the shape 
of the veneer is differ- 
ent, which may be got 
either by passing paper 
around, trimming on both ends and making a straight 
joint in center of column, or by laying out the diagram, 
as in Fig. 48. In explanation thereof, let A, B, C, D 
represent the column 
in question. To find 
the shape of a veneer 
to pass around this 
column extend AB 
and CD to E. With 
the radius EC and, 
ED, describe the arcs] 
CF and OH, which 
will be the required 
shape, and the dis- 
tance AF and IH will 
pass half-way around, 

and the veneer requires to be cut as large again to 
pass all around the column. Under no circumstances 
make more than one joint. By following the instruc- 




Fig. 47 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



57 




Fig. 48 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



tion herein given any fair mechanic will be enabled to 
execute a creditable piece of work." 

In veneering small work, such as picture frames, 
clock stands or similar work, cauls should be reverse 
of the moulding or face of the work to be veneered, 
and the top of caul, when laid on the moulding, should 
be parallel with the under side of the work, so that 
caul and work can be gripped firmly with hand screws, 
when the veneer is being glued in place. 

The section shown in Fig. 49 is known in the trade 
as a plain chamfer, and Fig. 50 shows a method by 
which such a frame maybe veneered 
without taking it to pieces. Veneer 
}i inch thick can only be laid with 
cauls; and a suitable one is shown, 
and also the method of fixing it. 
The dotted outline of the caul is 
shown in section in Fig. 49, with the 
veneer between it and the base. If 
the frames are polished, remove 
the polish carefully with a sharp scraper; avoid work- 
ing the surface into holes, but leave it rough from the 
scraper. Cut the veneer to a width that will allow 
sufficient margin for beveling, as shown in Fig. 49, 
and tooth or scratch the under face with a saw. Joint 
the inside edge to a correct bevel, cut to a miter and 
joint the ends in a miter joint, bedding the veneer 
either on a piece of the moulding or on a waste piece 
chamfered to the same angle; this is to obtain a vertical 
face to the miter. Next prepare the caul (as shown 
in Fig. 49) out of a piece of deal. The caul should be 
i^^inch shorter than the veneer, and mitered at each 
end; not cut square as shown in Fig. 50; which is 
drawn thus for clearness. Make the caul slightly 




Fig. 49 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



59 



round in length and beveled, so that the two surfaces 
marked AB (Fig. 49) are parallel. Well glue the 
veneer and the frame, lay the veneer in the proper 
position, place a strip of paper on the surface of the 
veneer, and lay the caul (preferably hot) upon this 
paper and fix with hand screws as shown; the more 
screws the better. Take care that the inside edge of 




Fig. 50 

the veneer is flush with the edges of the frame. Pro- 
ceed to fix the opposite side in like manner; then 
wipe off the superfluous glue with a rag dipped in hot 
water, and wash the miters clean; then fit in the two 
end pieces, which can be fixed in the manner described 
for the sides. Allow twelve hours to dry, then clean 
off the back edges and scrape up the faces. 



MAKING READY FOR POLISHING 

If the workman who finally finishes woodwork had 
the selection of the materials out of which the work 



6o THE UP-TO-DATE 

is formed, and wrought the work himself, the follow- 
ing suggestions would scarcely be required, for he 
would see to it that the material was free from shakes, 
cracks, worm holes, doze, sap and fractures; and he 
would so choose his material that the full beauty of 
the grain would show, when the polish coat went on. 
He would also see that the work was clean; that is, 
that no plane marks were visible, no rough spots or 
cross-grains noticeable, and that all angles were sharp 
and definite, all mouldings smooth and not a nail head 
or screw top to be seen, nor any point that could 
suggest a nail head. As a rule, however, the work- 
man who puts on the last finishing touches never 
makes the work, though he is always expected to 
cover and hide all the faults of bad workmanship, bad 
selection of timber, and a thousand other objection- 
able things in connection with work over which he 
has had no control. In order to aid the finisher as 
much as possible, 1 give a few hints herewith, for the 
use of the workman whose duty it may be to prepare 
and put up the work to be finished. The suggestions 
given are equally applicable for hard and soft woods, 
and 1 trust they will not be out of place. 

First, then, see that the material is dry, free from 
imperfections, of the full sizes required, and of such 
variety of grain as may be suitable for the purpose 
intended. Next, make all joints close and as near 
perfect as possible, as on this point rests, in a great 
measure, the artistic appearance of the work. Make 
all angles sharp and clean, and all mitered mouldings 
true and with perfect intersections. Never use glass 
paper where a scraper can be applied, and when a 
large quantity of mouldings of similar contour and size 
are to be employed; it is always better to make a 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



6i 




Fig. 51 



scraper their reverse shape, and use it in cleaning and 
preparing the mouldings for the varnisher, than to use 
glass paper for the purpose. 

The scraper illustrated by Fig. 51, ana shown handled 
by Fig. 52, is an aid in producing surfaces more flat 
and regular than can 
be produced with 
the plane alone. Its 
use does not dis- 
pense with the 
plane; on the con- 
trary, any surface 
on which the scraper 
is to be used must previously be planed as level and 
smooth as plane can make it. But the plane, in doing 
its work — no matter how sharp it may be, or how closely 
the back-iron is set up to the edge of the cutting iron, 
or how straight across the edge the cutting iron is 
sharpened — is liable to leave marks and ridges on the 
face of the work, which, on hard woods, 
are not effectively removed by the use 
of sandpaper alone. The scraper is 
used after the plane has finished its work, 
and previous to the final operation of 
sandpapering. In addition to the re- 
moval of the ridges left by the plane, 
the scraper is used for dressing up all 
kinds of cross-grained surfaces that occur 
in curly and figured solid and veneer woods; but as far 
,as possible this use of the scraper should be avoided. 
Excessive dressing up of a cross-grained patch on a 
panel, a stile, or a table-top will most certainly show, 
and spoil the flatness and general appearance of the 
arti^cle when it is polished. As a rule, such excessive 




^ '^ •"■ 



Fig. 52 



62 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 53 



scraping is resorted to in consequence of the plane 
having been sharpened and set badly, or of some other 
technical oversight or unskillful manipulation. 

The scraper is a thin and very hard steel plate, about 
5 in. by 3 in., or 4>^ in. by 2>^ in., and slightly less 
than jVi"- J" thickness. The long edges are sharpened 
in a peculiar manner. Both of the long edges may be 
straight, as in Fig. 51, and at AB, Fig. 53, or one 
edge may have round corners of differing radii, as at 

CD. These corners are 
often useful in working 
up hollows and mould- 
ings generally. The 
"straight" edge AB, it 
will be noticed, is not 
quite straight throughout 
its whole length. Near 
the ends the edge is gradually rounded off, to prevent 
the corners catching in the surface that is being operated 
on. In this respect, the commercial scraper (Fig. 51) is 
incorrectly shaped. The cutting power of a scraper 
depends upon, first, the quality and temper of the steel 
of which it is made; and, secondly, upon the proper 
formation of the burr or feather along its edges. Also, 
the faces of the steel plate must be perfectly bright 
and free from rust marks or indentations of any kind. 
It is by no means an uncommon thing to find any rusty 
piece of sheet steel — a piece of an old hand saw or 
try-square, for example — being used as a scraper. 
The smallest appreciation of why the scraper cuts 
would indicate how useless such material is for this 
particular purpose. On the other hand, scarcely any- 
thing better can be found for making a scraper than a 
piece of broken saw blade, provided the sides of it are 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 63 

still polished and bright. The fact that the saw was 
broken may easily be taken to indicate a higher temper 
than usual in the blade, thus fitting it exactly for the 
purpose of a scraper. The temper of an ordinary 
saw blade is not usually hard enough. Provided 
that there is enough elasticity to "give" in the 
operator's hands as it is being pushed along, the 
scraper , should be nearly too hard for an ordinary 
file to touch. If it can be filed easily, then its edge 
will soon be gone. At the same time, if the steel 
is merely hard without the required amount of elas- 
ticity, the burr will strip off as it is applied to ^the 
work, leaving a coarse, jagged edge which is worse 
than useless. 

^The correctly sharpened scraper is a real cutting 
tool, and not, as its name suggests — and as in practice 
it often is — a mere abrader of the surface. When in 
good working trim, the scraper should, if desired, take 
off shaving after shaving perfectly uniform in thick- 
ness, and nearly as wide as the cutting edge is long. 
But such a performance is rarely required of it, and 
never when the plane has previously done its work 
properly. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the 
fact that the proper duty of the scraper is not to make 
a surface, but to correct the irregularities on it. In 
explanation of the cutting action of the scraper, a 
diagrammatic figure is shown in Fig. 66. The figure 
correctly illustrates the cutting principle, though it 
does not represent a true section of the scraper. In 
use, the scraper is held firmly in both hands and tilted 
forwards, away from the operator, until the cutting 
edge grips the surface of the wood, exactly as shown 
in Fig. 54. It is then kept steadily at this angle, and 
made to cut a fine shaving at each stroke as it is being 



64 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



pushed away from the operator in the direction from 
E to F (Fig. 54). 

The proper formation of the burr edge is of the 
greatest importance. Having procured a suitable 




||ll\^^^a^^ 



Fig. 54 

steel plate, a usual but not recommended method is 
as follows: The plate is laid down on the bench as 
shown in Fig. 55. A narrow chisel, brad-awl or gouge, 

as shown in Fig. 
56, is then laid on 
the scraper hori- 
zontally, and with 
considerable pres- 
s u r e is stroked 
backwards and 
forwards from end 
to end of the 
plate, G to H, 
Fig. 55. After 
about 10 or 12 
strokes the scraper is turned over and the other side is 
treated in the same manner. This completes the first 
part of the process of sharpening. Next, the gouge 




Fig. 55 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



65 



is placed vertically against the edge, as shown in Fig. 
57, and stroked to and fro with about the same 
pressure and firmness as the sides of plate received, 




Fig. 56 

and about the same number of times. Or else, for 

this second part, the scraper may be placed on its 

corner on the bench, as shown in Fig. 58, and held 

firmly in the left 

hand, while the 

right hand deftly 

strokes the convex 

side of the gouge 

with a quick action 

and considerable 

pressure, once or 

twice in an upward 

direction, as from 

I to J in Fig. 58. 

The scraper is then 

tried on the work 

to determine its 

sharpness. If, 

after this process, 

the scraper fails to 

cut satisfactorily, 

it is laid down on 

the bench and the two processes are repeated. The 

following is a better method of sharpening a scraper: 

First, have the scraper ground so that its edge shall be 




Fig. 57 



66 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



straight and square, and slope up at the ends, as shown 
at A and B, Fig. 53. It should then be placed on its edge 
on a fine-cutting oilstone, as shown in Fig. 60, and 
rubbed backwards and forwards until all traces of the 
grinding have disappeared. Then it should be laid flat 
on its side, still on the oilstone, as in Fig. 61, and 
rubbed until the sides are bright and polished all along 
the edges. If any false burr or feather-edge has been 

created in this last 
process, the scrap- 
er must be set up 
on its edge again, 
as in Fig. 60, and 
rubbed a little 
more, until two 
perfectly square 
and sharp corners 
appear all along 
the scraper. Now, 
if due care has 
really been taken 
in making the 
corners perfect 
and square, the 
scraper in this condition would produce shavings 
tolerably well on any hardwood; but the shaving 
would be the result of abrasive and not of cutting 
action. It is purely a matter of choice if, at this 
stage, a smooth-backed gouge is passed to and fro 
over the side of the scraper, as in Fig. 55, with Vhe 
object of imparting a still higher polish to the plate of 
steel at the plac-es where the burr is to be formed. 
But the greatest care must be taken not to press too 
heavily, and also to maintain a perfectly level position 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



67 



with the gouge, while the poh'shing is being done. As 
stated, this polishing of the side is not really 
necessary, and the scraper would cut very well without 




Fig. 59 

its supposed assistance. Next, the scraper is placed 
on its corner on the bench, and a flat and smooth- 
backed gouge is passed once — or at most twice — along 

the edge. The scraper 
during this operation 
may be held either as 
already shown in Fig. 
57, or as is here rec- 
ommended and shown 
in Fig. 61; or it may be 
fastened in the bench- 
vise. The aim in this 
particular action is the production of an exceedingly fine 
burr, scarcely enough to be called a burr at all, but a per- 
fectly regular bending over of the corner; the gouge 




'.m^^ 



Fig. 60 



68 



THE Ui^- TO -DATE 



must be very lightly pressed, or it will cause the burr 
to curl up too much, and also it must be ke[)t nearl)', 
though not quite, horizontal. With regard to resharp- 

ening the scraper, 
when this becomes 
necessary, the 
scraper must be 
placed upon the 
oilstone and 
rubbed up again to 
perfectly square 
corners as pre- 
viously described 
in connection with 
Figs. 60 and 61. 

There are other 
methods of sharp- 
ening scrapers 
which are made 
use of by some 
workmen; indeed, nearly every workman, after expe- 
rience, will adopt such method as will seem to him to 
be the best for the purpose. There are workmen who 
seldom or never use an oilstone, but employ 
a fine file instead, and draw file the edge of 
the scraper as shown in Fig. 63. This is done 
by placing the scraper in a vise and with a 
smooth, flat file making the edge perfectly 
square and as straight as possible after the man- 
ner of jointing a hand saw. Next place the file 
squarely across the edge and pass it from end to end of 
the scraper two or three times. This operation is known 
as draw-filing, a plan view of the position and direction 
of the file being shown in Fig. 63. Treat all four edges 




Fig. 61 




Fig. 62 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



69 



the same way. The edge, as it will now appear, is 
shown enlarged and exaggerated in Fig. 64. Remove 
the scraper from the vise and lay it flat on the bench, 
then taking the gouge. Fig. 56, rub out straight all the 
wire edges, keeping the gouge on the scraper and passing 
it quickly back and forth after the manner of stropping 




Fig. 63 



a razor. The edge will then appear as in Fig. 65. 

Now, taking the scraper in the left hand and holding 

it firmly edgewise on the bench, place the gouge 

across the edge, making a small bevel with the side of 

the scraper, and draw it upward two or three times, 

using considerable pressure. This will turn the edge 

back as it was after filing, but it will 

now be straight instead of grooved, and ^ 

smooth instead of ragged. All of the 

eight edges must be treated in the same 

manner, when they will appear as in 

Fig. 66, and the scraper should now 

Fig. 64 take off a shaving like a smooth-plane, Fig. 65 

but much finer. 

In order to resharpen the scraper it is not necessary 

to go through the filing operation again for some time — 

simply flatten out the edges and turn them again with 

a little more bevel than before. This can be done 




■o 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




very rapidly. In order to avoid too many stops, 
always keep three or four scrapers at hand and sharpen 

them all at once. 
The best thing 
with which to hold 
the scraper is a 
piece of sandpa- 
per, with the 
sanded side next 
the scraper. This 
gives a good grip 
and prevents the 
tool from burning 
the fingers. 

Some people file the edge of the scraper rounding, 
to prevent the corners from catching. This is not at 
all necessary, as the 
action of pushing the 
scraper bends it slight- 
ly, which raises the cor- 
ners somewhat. The 
sharpening of a scraper, 
hovv^ever, like the sharp- 
ening of a hand saw, 
takes considerable prac- 
tice and no little knack; 
so if at first one does 
not succeed it is only 
necessary to keep peg- 
ging away at it until 
success crowns the pj^ g7 

efforts, for it is well 

worth all the trouble. It may be mentioned incident- 
ally that a good burnisher may be bought all ready at 




HARDWOOD FINISHER 



71 



any good hardware store. Leather curriers use them 
for turning the edges of their knives and they are bet- 
ter than a gouge because of their being tempered harder 
and more highly finished. 

The true theory of a scraper, for some purposes, 
may be described as follows: Where there is a lot of 
superfluous wood to remove, as in hardwood floors or 
other similar work, where it is not desirable to use a 
smooth plane, it is well to file or grind the scraper to a 
bevel, the same as a 
plane iron, and bring it 
to a keen edge on the 
oilstone; then proceed 
to burnish it. Hold the 
burnisher slightly at an 
angle with the bevel as 
indicated in Fig. 6^^ 
and draw it lightly 
across the blade. Then 
increase the angle and 
the pressure, repeating 
the process until the 
burnisher is at nearly 
right angles with the 
blade, after which run 
the burnisher back and forward a few times, first one 
side and then the other, as indicated in Fig. 68, when it 
is ready for use. When it becomes a little dull, do not 
turn the edge back, as many do, but use the burnisher, 
as shown in Fig. 68. A good blade will stand for two 
or three hours without filing or grinding. 

For fine work file or grind the blade perfectly square 
on the edge and get it perfectly smooth on the oil- 
stone, Then hold the burnisher as shown in Fig. 69, 




Fig. 68 



72 



THE UP-TO-DATE 









1 / 

' / 
' / 








1 1 / 


BLADE 






:// 


Yik\-y^:.m:m^.-o. 'r/'/i 


;/>//,■ 


'/.'///,.. \ 


zy/ 



the dotted lines indicating how to start and the full 
lines how to finish. In all cases finish the operation 
as shown in Fig. 69, If unsuccessful the first time, do 
not give up the job, for the scraper is a tool that 
requires a great deal of practice in order to become 
expert in sharpening. 

Defective Sharpening of Scrapers. — A frequent mis- 
take is to put too great pressure on the gouge, and to 
stroke too much. One or two strokes should be quite 

• , sufficient to give the 

scraper the proper 
edge. At all events, 
after the scraper has 
had a couple of 
strokes of the bur- 
nisher or gouge, it 
should be tried, and 
if it does not grip the 
work properly, give 
it a few strokes more. 
Scrapers with a high 
temper require more 
burnishing than if 
soft or medium tem- 
per, but if overdone, the edge will crumble and it will not 
do clean work. Soft scrapers are easier handled than 
hard ones, but require a great deal more sharpening, 
and this sometimes leads to rough work, as the workman 
will not take time to repeatedly put his scraper in order. 
As before stated, the workman should have at least 
three or four scrapers on hand, and they should always 
be kept in good order. It is a good plan to have a 
little box or case in the tool chest purposely to hold 
scrapers, for two reasons: The workman will always 




Fig. 69 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



73 




Fig. 70 



know where to find them when wanted and, secondly, 
it will save the edges from being broken or damaged 
by being jolted or 
rubbed against other 
tools. 

Varieties of Scrap- 
ers. — There is a new 
scraper in the market 
which is said to be 
superior to anything 
made in the scraper 
line. A representa- 
tion of it is shown in Fig. 70, which is taken from an 
advertisement. Ido not know of my own knowledge 

how the scraper 
works, but, judg- 
ing from its shape 
and setting, I 
should think it 
theoretically cor- 
Fig. 71 ^^^t. 

Other shapes of scrapers are shown in Figs. 71 and 
72. The first of these is intended for smoothing up 
hollows and rounds. A 
number of these should y^^ 
be kept on hand, with 
curves of various radii. ^^^H 
Fig. 72 shows a scraper W 
made purposely for clean- 
ing out hollows of various 
curvatures, and will be ^yq 72 

found very useful on work 

where there are a number of curves or other hollow 
mouldings. Often the workman may have to make 





74 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 73 



scrapers to suit certain kinds of work, and when 
such is the case, he should make it a fixed rule 
never to change them, but to keep them in his tool 
chest, and make others, when necessary, from new 
material. An old hand saw blade 
generally answers quite well for scrap- 
ers, and one saw will make a couple 
of dozen scrapers of different sizes and 
shapes. 

How to Use Sandpaper. — For properly 
using sandpaper a rubber is needed. A piece of ma- 
hogany or clean pine, 5^ in. by 3 in. by I in., shaped 
as in Fig. 73, answers well if a piece of sheet cork is 
glued on the face as shown. Fold a piece of sandpa- 
per, 6 in. wide and about 10 in. long, into three, place it 
sand side downwards, and put the face of the rubber 
on the middle division. Grasp the rubber so that the 
ends of the sandpaper are held firmly on its back and 
sides (see Fig. 74), and work then can be commenced. 
A solid rubber about one inch thick makes an 
excellent block for the purpose. A piece of rubber 
belting glued to a piece of bass- 
wood also makes a good rubber 
block. 

Rasps and Files. — The wood- 
worker occasionally uses rasps, 
and these generally are half- 
round, though sometimes flat. 
The cabinet rasp shown in Fig. 
75 is not a very coarse one. 

Cabinet and wood rasps range from 4 in. to 14 in. 
in length, and at 12 in. and less the price is about 
4 cents per inch. The extra 2 in. in a 14-inch rasp 
adds nearly 50 per cent to the price. Files also 




Fig. 74 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



75 



are used, for smoothing up hardwood. When a 
file is used, it should be pushed and drawn in the 
direction of the grain. The file usually em- 
ployed by carriage makers for 
smoothing up spokes and other 
work is generally a half-round 
bastard file, and when properly 
used makes exceedingly smooth 
work. A finer file than the bastard 
is shown in Fig. 76. This is some- 
times used for finishing narrow 
flat work. 

SAWS FOR WORKING HARDWOOD 

Saw-filing is an art unto itself, 
and few men ever attain the art 
to perfection. To file a saw in 
such manner that the working of 
it is a pleasure requires an amount 
of skill and a high order of tech- 
nical knowledge that can only be 
acquired by thought and expe- 
rience; yet a properly set and filed 
saw is a real necessity in the mak- 
ing of good joiners' work, and, 
while every workman cannot 
become an expert saw-filer, he 
ought at least to possess such 
knowledge of the art as will ena- 
ble him to set and file his own 
saws in such a manner as will ena- 
ble him to execute such work as 
he may be called upon to make; 
Fig. 75 and to this end, I propose to offer Fig. 70 



u<*^j 



76 



TlIK UP-TO-DATE 



a few instructions and remarks that will assist him in 
managing his own saws without the employment of 
expert aid. It is not my intention to go into the mat- 
ter of saw-filing to any great extent, as that subject will 
probably be discussed at length in another volume, 
but what I do offer will, I trust, be up to the mark. 

All workmen in wood require two saws, namely, a 
cross-cut saw, and a rip-saw. The shape of the teeth 
in these saws differs, also the size, and each requires a 
special form of tooth and a different style of filing. 

Many workmen think that so long as the tooth of a 
saw has a sharp edge the shape of the tooth is a matter 

n 




=^ 



Fig. 77 

of small importance, and as a result of this ignorance 
or indifference they are always in trouble with their 
saws, and their work becomes much more laborious 
than if proper attention had been paid to the shape of 
the teeth. Substances of different texture cannot be 
cut advantageously with the same tool; in fact, the 
tool must be adapted to the work if the best all- 
round results are to be produced. Fig. 77 illustrates 
a form of tooth suitable for an ordinary hand rip-saw. 
The tooth points number about four to the inch, and 
the front of the tooth is upright, that is, at an angle 
of 90°. The face of the tooth should be filed to an 
angle of 85° to 87°, or 3° to 5"" from the square. Some 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



11 



experts contend that the teeth of a rip-saw should be 
filed dead square. The object in filing them a little 
on the bevel is that the teeth may cut more freely and 
easily when they have become a bit dull, there being 
then what is termed a little clearance cut in the teeth. 
In nearly all timber there is, it is well known, a certain 



M 




Fig. 78 

amount of fiber to be cut either directly or obliquely 
across, and teeth that are filed square will not, whether 
they are sharp or dull, divide this fiber so easily as 
teeth that have a slight bevel. 

The illustration. Fig. ']'], shows a saw tooth that 
works quite well in the softer woods, but for the harder 




Fig. 79 

woods a little more plane or angle on the cutting edge 
would cause the saw to cut with less labor; and if there 
were about five teeth to the inch, it would cut with ease 
any kind of hardwood. 

The teeth shown in Fig. 78 are well suited to a hand 
saw used for cross-cutting soft wood. The tooth 



/8 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



points in this saw may number five or six to the inch. 
The front of the tooth slopes at an angle of about 105°. 
The face of the tooth in sharpening should be filed to 
an angle of from 55° to 60^ The softer the timber 
that is to be cross-cut, the more acute should be the 
angle of the teeth, as the keener edge separates the 
fibers more easily. Fig. 79 shows a form of hand saw 




Fig. 80 



tooth suitable for cross-cutting hardwood. The number 
of tooth points may be from six to eight to the inch, 
and the front of the tooth should slope at an angle of 
no'' to 115°, according to the hardness of the timber 
to be sawed. The face of this tooth should be filed to 
an ane^le of 70° to 75°, because the cutting edge must 

be less acute owing to hard- 
wood fibers being more com- 
pact than those of soft wood. 
The whole number of saws 
made use of by the wood- 
worker amounts to some six or eight, comprising the 
rip, cross-cut, h'and, panel, tenon, dovetail, bow or 
turning, and keyhole. The hand saw type includes 
the hand saw prope'r, the ripping, half-ripping, and 
panel saws, all of similar outline, but differing in 
dimensions, and in form and size of teeth. There is 
no sharp distinction between these tools, as they merge 




Fig. 81 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



79 



o 



Fig. 82 



one into the other; yet at the extremes it would be 

impossible to substitute the ripping and panel saws 

one for the other. The hand 

saw, however, which is a kind 

of compromise between ex- 
tremes, is used indiscriminately 

for all purposes. 

A tenon, or back-saw, is 

shown in Fig. 80., It is made 

in different lengths, and the \/^**^ 

blades are not all made the 

same width. The dovetail saw 

is a back-saw with a very thin 

blade; it is not much used in 

this country, only by Euro- 
peans. It is intended especially for very fine work. 

The other saws named are for special purposes, and 

need not be described here. 
The methods of filing, how- 
ever, are about the same as 
, described for the saws first 
named, with the exception 
of the bow or scroll saw. 
This saw, which is intended 
to cut with and across the 
': grain, or obliquely to it, 
,y;p should have its teeth filed 
with a sharper plane than a 
rip-saw, but not quite so 
sharp as a cross-cut saw; in 
Yyq,, 83 other words, it wants a 

hybrid tooth, "between and 

betwixt" a cross-cut and a rip-saw tooth. (See Fig. 81.) 
The set of a saw is important, and this is shown in 



8o 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



F'^'s. 'j'j, 78, 82 and 83. The teeth at both point and 
butt of a hand saw should be very slightly smaller than 
those in the middle, as it is at the last-named point 
where the greatest force is exerted in every down 
stroke. But it is absolutely necessary that the set is 
the same from point to butt of every saw, whether rip 
or cross-cut. The middle of the cutting edge of a 
cross-cut saw should be slightly rounded, being 
highest at about the middle. The saw being still in 




Fig. 84 



the saw vise, insert the file in a handle, and grasp it 
with the right hand, taking the point of file in the left, 
as shown in Fig. 84. Place the file against the face of 
that tooth nearest the handle that inclines away from 
the worker, holding the file at an angle with the blade 
or saw as shown in Fig. 84. Then lower the right 
hand to about the angle shown in Fig. 85 (which shows 
the left hand removed). The file should be held 
obliquely across the saw blade, as in Figs. 83 and 84, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



Bi 



the point end of the file being inclined towards the 
saw handle as illustrated by Fig. 84. Gently push the 
file forwards, lifting it at the end of stroke, returning 
it, and again pushing it, until the point of the tooth 
has a keen edge. Repeat this upon each alternate 
tooth until all upon one side are sharpened. Serve the 
other side in the same manner. Be careful not to press 
the file against the back of the tooth, as unevenness 
will surely result. 

Keep all saws slightly rounding on the edge. The 
rip-saw and the hand saw may have a full quarter of 
an inch rounding with advantage. All saws, except 
circulars, have 
a constant ten- 
dency to get 
hollow, and this 
must be pre- 
vented; and' the 
only way to pre- 
vent it is to file 
the teeth down by passing a partly-worn file along 
the edges till it touches every tooth. Then, in 
filing the teeth, take care only just to take out this 
bright mark — not one touch more or that tooth will 
be shorter than its neighbors. A saw properly sharp- 
ened, and in good order, has each tooth do its proper 
share of cutting and no more. 

Sharpening Tenon Saws. — Sharpening tenon saws is 
practically the same as sharpening hand saws. It may 
happen, however, that some of the teeth will be much 
larger than others, this being due to the file not 
having been held at the same angle in sharpening 
each tooth. Fig. 81 shows the saw teeth improperly 
sharpened, the front of the large teeth inclining much 




Fig. 85 



82 THE UP-TO-DATE 

more than the front of the small teeth. If the teeth 
in one range are found to be filed smaller than those 
in the other, file the back of the smaller teeth to a 
more acute angle, keeping the file at the same time 
well against the front of the other tooth at the bot- 
tom, and see before the filing is finished, that the front 
of the next tooth has been filed up to its point, as it 
is the front, not the back, of the tooth that does the 
cutting. To regulate the teeth of the saw, file every 
tooth in succession, shooting the file straight across 
the teeth. After filing all the teeth from one si^de, 
turn the saw, and file as before from the other side. 
When the teeth are fairly regular, the flat file may be 
run over them lightly. This will bring the teeth 
uniform in length. Now file every alternate tooth, 
first on one side and then on the other side of the saw, 
as shown in Fig. 84. Hold the file as nearly as 
possible to the same angle in each case, as it is on 
this filing that the regularity of the teeth depends. 
When all the flat places caused by the file when 
topping the teeth disappear, cease filing, as any further 
filing may cause low teeth, which tend to make the 
saw cut irregularly. W^hen the saw is so filed that all 
the teeth get their equal share of cutting, the saw may 
be said to be well filed. When the teeth are filed as 
shown in Fig. 83, there is a larger and better cutting 
edge than with the one more obtuse. If the points 
only of the teeth are allowed to do the work, the action 
is a scratching and not a cutting one. 

One of the great difficulties in hand sharpening is to 
get the bevels of the teeth exactly alike. A number 
of mechanical arrangements to guide the saw and 
effect this object have been tried with more or less 
success. In one of the best of these devices a circular 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



83 



casting is divided and indexed from its center each 
way, giving bevels for each side of the saw, or square 
across. The file is fitted into a guide, and is held by 
a set-screw. The index shows the pitch at which the 
file is set, and a rod passes through holes in a graduat- 
ing ring and guides the file. The frame upon which 
the ring is held slides in grooves cut on each side of 
the vise in which the saw is fixed; a table connected 
with the guide is arranged and indexed so as to give 
the required bevel and pitch for the kind of saw to 
be filed, and it is only necessary to set the ring for 
the bevel, and the indicator for 
the pitch, and the apparatus is 
ready for use. As the filing is 
proceeded with from tooth to 
tooth, the frame follows, giving 
to each tooth on one side of the 
saw the same bevel, pitch, and 
size as on the other, thus leaving 
the saw, when filing is finished, 
with the teeth all uniform in size, 
pitch, and bevel, so that each tooth 
will doits share of cutting equally 

with the others, thus turning out more and better qual- 
ity of work with less expenditure of energy. An old- 
fashioned way of getting the right angle of a tooth of a 
hand saw in filing is shown by Fig. 86. A hand saw blade 
is narrowest in width at the point, and broadest at the 
butt; and the slope of the back, compared with the 
line of teeth, is almost always uniform for all saws; 
and if a square be placed against this back, a tooth 
may be filed whose cutting edge is perfectly in line 
with the edge of the square. All the teeth being thus 
filed and afterwards set, a saw which will answer 




Fig. 86 



84 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



general purposes is produced, and one which will suit 
the worker who has but one hand saw. It will cross- 
cut soft woods and rip hard woods, thus being a kind 
of half-rip. Moreover, this square may be used as a 
gauge, the teeth not necessarily being filed as shown; 
and if the rake or lead be very much, an adjustable 
bevel may be used. 

PLANES GENERALLY 

In workshop practice, planes are the tools chiefly 
used for smoothing the surface of wood after it has 
been sawed to approximate size. In its simplest form, 

a plane is a chisel firmly fixed 
into a block of wood by which 
it is guided in its cut, and the 
amount of wood taken off in 
the form of ar shaving is reg- 
ulated to a nicety. In fact, 
such a simple tool actually is 
used sometimes, when a proper 
plane of the requisite shape 
and of a suitable size cannot be procured. To make 
the construction of an ordinary plane quite clear, a 
section of one is illustrated by Fig. 87, in which A 
shows the section of stock; B, the wedge; C, cutting 
iron; D, back iron; E, the screw for fastening irons 
together; and F is the mouth through which the 
shavings pass upwards. A plane is simply a copying 
tool, and a notch in the plane-iron at once proves that 
the pattern produced corresponds with the edge of 
the plane-iron, and all the imperfections of this edge 
will be copied on to the stuff. In all planing oper- 
ations the edge of the tool is the pattern, which is 
copied in reverse on the wood. If a hollow is required 




Fig. 87 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 85 

to be produced on the wood, a tool is used with a 
round edge of exactly similar form to the hollow we 
wish produced. In machine planing the pattern is the 
edge of the tool, which produces a similar surface 
upon the wood. 

Direction of Grain in Planes. — For flat planes such as 
jack, try, and smoothing planes, the grain must be 
straight and, of course, run lengthways of the tool. 
The wood is selected from a center plank of beech as 
near to the bark as possible; in all planes, the wood 
nearest the bark, that being the hardest part of the 
wood, becomes the sole or working surface. The wood 
is seasoned thoroughly, and never is used until at 
least three years after cutting. Moulding planes 
mostly work on the spring, and need not have the 
grain so straight as flat planes. Hollows, rounds, and 
rebate planes are exceptional, however, and should 
have the grain as straight as possible, "because the 
rebate plane is cut right through, and is liable to cast 
or warp if not quite straight-grained; and most of the 
hollows and rounds, being thin, are liable to cast also 
if not of straight, mild, and well-seasoned wood. 
Wood for plane making should be as free from knots 
as possible. 

Jack and Trying Planes. — The jack plane, Fig. 88, is 
the first applied to the wood after it has been sawed. 
This plar^e is always employed to remove the rough- 
ness of the work before finishing up with trying and 
smoothing planes. It is made up of five parts — 
namely, the stock (which should be 17 in. in length), 
the toat or handle, the wedge, the cutting iron or 
cutter (2^ in. broad), and back iron. Immediately 
behind the iron is a handle, which, in use, is grasped 
only by the right hand in planing fir; but in heavy 



86 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



planing, and especially in hardwood, it is necessary to 
place the left hand across the front of the plane to 
press it down, to cause the iron to take hold of the 
wood. When using both hands to the plane, the left 
is placed with the four fingers lying across the top 
near the fore end, the thumb passing down the near 
side. Well-seasoned beech is a suitable wood for the 
stock. The construction of the trying or truing 
plane is almost exactly the same as that of the jack 




Fig. 88 



plane, but it is much longer, so as to produce truer 
surfaces. 

Using the Plane. — When using the plane, always keep 
the plane well oiled in front of the iron; be sure and 
work with the grain as shown in Fig. 8g, whenever 
possible. A far thicker shaving can be taken off 
smoothly in this way than if worked as shown in Fig. 
90, which is working against the grain and requires 
more careful work with a more finely set plane. Do 
not use the plane at an uncomfortable height. When 
the board to be planed is in position, and the worker 
takes hold of the plane ready to begin work, a line 
drawn through his elbow and wrist should be rather 
lower than higher at the wrist, though if the forearm is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



87 



level it will do fairly well. Do not attempt to take off 
thick shavings at the outset, and do not be dis- 
appointed if a shaving is not taken off from end to 
end at the first trial. If the wood has any hollow in 
it, it will be impossible to do this, and even if it is 
perfectly straight it is sometimes difficult to do it. 




Fig. 89 



There is always a tendency to plane off too much near 
the bench stop, as the arm is apt to be raised at this 
point. Errors of this kind can be avoided by careful 
practice and attention. It is a good idea to try to 
plane the center of the material rather than the margin, 
for if a good plane is in proper order it is impossible 
to make the work too hollow or concave; whereas. 




Fig. 90 

however good the plane, careless use of it can and will 
make the work convex in every direction. 

In making use of the smoothing plane for finishing 
up stuff, it should be held as shown in Fig. 91, the 
right hand grasping it firmly at the back, whilst the 
left hand steadies it in front. In starting, the tool is 



88 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 91 



applied to the forc-cnd of the board, and gradually 
worked backwards, thus taking out any marks j)re- 
viously used tools may have made. It should be held 
firmly, and lifted sharply at the end of stroke, or a 

mark will be left where the plane 
finished. The work is continued 
until the board presents a per- 
fectly smooth surface, without 
marks of any kind. The left hand 
should frequently be passed across 
the face of the board, as any 
marks made by the plane can be 
readily detected in this manner. It may also with 
advantage be held so that the light passes across its 
surface from the side, thus showing up imperfect 
planing. Should there be too much iron out, a few 
blows with the hammer at the back of the plane will 
draw it back. Take care to tighten up the wedge 
again. A few drops of linseed oil applied to the face 
of the plane will facilitate the planing. 

The proper method of setting an iron in a plane so 
that it will not show lines or marks on the work, is 
sometimes quite a difificult operation, as the iron is 




■^ 



Fig. 92 



expected to be perfectly s(|uare and straight on the 
face. It is always well to either round off the corners 
of the iron slightly, or grind them with a slight bevel, 
which will keep the corners from "digging in." 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



89 



The smaller, or break-iron, whose office is to bend 
up the shaving somewhat sharply so as to ensure the 
cutting of the other iron, and to prevent its splitting 
off the surface of the work, should be placed so as to 
come within one-eighth of an inch of the extreme 
edge of the cutter for rough work, and within one- 
twentieth for finer or finishing work. The two should 
then be placed in position so that the edge projects the 
smallest possible degree below the sole. The position 
can only be determined by looking carefully along the 




Fig. 93 



bottom of the plane, with the front of the same next 
to the eye, as in Fig. 92. The edge will, if correctly 
formed and placed, appear quite parallel with the sole. 
It is then ready for use. The same rule applies to the 
small as to the large planes, except that in the jack- 
plane the iron projects rather more, as it is used for 
roughing down a surface. The trying-plane, which is 
longer, as before stated, and intended for edging 
boards which are to be joined lengthwise, is always 
very finely set, and the mouth is narrow. The break- 



90 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



iron is also si*t very close down to the cutting edge. 
The Ioniser the j^lane tiic more accurately le\el and 
true will be the work done by it. 

New planes are often a source of trouble owing to 
the shavings getting fast in the mouth, the plane 
refusing to take any more until the wedge and iron 
have been removed, and all cleaned out. The cause 
of this difficulty is that the mouth of the plane is too 
narrow, as shown in Eig. 93. Sometimes workmen cut 




Fig. 94 



a little out with a chisel, but in many instances this 
results in spoiling the tool, because in a short time 
the bottom of the plane wears away, and the mouth 
gets larger, subsequently getting so large as to require 
a piece to be set in to lessen the opening. The mouth 
of the plane can be kept open as long as needed by 
gluing a strip of soft leather, about three-fourths of 
an inch wide, in the mouth of the plane under the top 
end of the iron as shown in Fig. 94. When the plane 
bottom is sufficientlv worn the leather can be removed 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



91 



and the iron put back into its original position. The 
leather causes the iron to be more upright, and con- 
sequently there is a larger opening in the mouth (two 
thicknesses can be put under if necessary). 

Pitch of Plane Cutting Iron. — To assist the reader to 
understand correctly the principles of plane-iron 
sharpening, the following information is given. The 
seat of the plane-iron is made at different angles, to 
give the pitch to suit different kinds of work. The 
four angles most in use are as follows: Common 
pitch, in which the seat for the back of the iron is at 
an angle of 45° from the sole (this inclination is 
usually employed for all 
planes for soft wood); New 
York pitch, which has an 
angle of 50°, and is adapted 
for use with mahogany and 
other hard, stringy woods; 
middle pitch or 55°, and 
half pitch or 60°, which are 
employed with moulding 
planes, the former being for 

soft wood and the latter for the harder kinds. Fig. 95 
affords an idea of three angles, A giving the set of a 
half-pitched plane, B that of an ordinary plane, while 
C shows the inclination of an extra-pitched plane. 
The pitch or angle at which the cutter is set is of 
importance. There are three angles involved in this 
case: (i) The angle between the cutter and the 
surface of the work; this should be as small an angle 
as possible. It is obvious that if the surfaces of the 
cutter and the work were perfectly parallel, the cutter 
would glide over the surface without cutting, except 
under great pressure. By making the cutter edge 




Fig. 95 



92 



THE UP-TO-DATE 




Fig. 9G 



rather than its whole surface touch the work, the 
tendency to cut and to continue the contact is secured. 
The angle, which may be called the clearance angle, 
or the back angle, should only be enough to secure this 
condition of contact. (2) The angle of the cutter 
itself. The more acute this angle the better, if only 

the material will stand the 
strain and face the work with- 
out losing its edge. (3) The 
front or remaining angle 
may be found by subtracting 
both (i) and (2) from 180°, 
if dealing with plane sur- 
faces, and is available for 
the passing away of the waste 
material; in the case of the plane, however, this is lim- 
ited, in order to provide means to prevent the shaving 
being torn up in advance of the cutting action. This 
provision is made by the front portio;^ of the plane, 
and to be efficacious must be in contact with the work 
and as near the edge of the cutter as possible to allow 
waste to escape. A few 
experiments with a knife 
will show that for soft ma- 
terials a slight angle is 
best. This involves a thin 
knife, and its side almost 
in contact with the mate- 
rial to be cut; but as harder 
things are tried the stiff- 
ness of the cutter, and the consequent angle, must 
be increased, not because it is merely desirable, but 
because it is absolutely necessary to have a stronger 
cutter, The more upright an iron is set, the less 




Fig. 97 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 93 

liable is it to tear up the wood in planing; but in 
the same degree the iron loses its edge more quickly, 
is more likely to jump and chatter, and is more 
laborious to work. In toothing planes the irons are 
set upright, and in "old woman's tooth," planes or 
routers nearly upright. In working with an upright 
irpn, the action of the tool is a scraping one, while 
the more the iron is inclined the nearer it ap- 
proaches the action of splitting the wood. For this 
reason an ordinary or extra-pitched plane is more 
liable to splinter up the surface of a piece of work; 
but this accident may be in great measure prevented 
by using a properly adjusted back iron. Moulding 
planes, rounds and hollows, bead 
planes, and others that work without ^ 
a back iron, are usually preferred Fig. 98 

set to the half-pitch angle; while for 
working on end-grained stuff, extra-pitched tools, such 
as shoulder and bull-nosed planes, give the best results. 
In examining the side of a plane-iron, it is found to be 
made up of an iron back faced with steel. The steel, 
welded on to the iron and distinguished by its 
brighter color and finer grain, acts as a cutting edge, 
the iron being required to give sufficient stiffness to 
prevent chattering. When newly ground and 
sharpened, a plane-iron has three angles, one due to 
the pitch, A, Fig. 97, one made by the grindstone, B, 
and one made by the oilstone, C. The angles A and B 
do not alter, but C gradually becomes more acute with 
sharpening on the oilstone, until it lines with the face 
of the plane, as in Fig. 98, when the iron refuses to 
cut properly, and requires grinding. The pitch angle 
A (Fig. 96) varies in planes by different makers, as 
described above. 



94 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



Oilstones for Sharpening Plane Irons. — A good oilstone, 
capable of putting a keen edge on the plane irons, is 
a necessity to all woodworkers, but more particularly 
to the hardwood finisher. The Washita stone, manu- 
factured by the Pike .Nlfg. Co., or other fast cutting 
stones are useful for removing the waste or superfluous 
metal from the iron when it is too thick; but it is 
seldom that one of these stones can be trusted to leave 
a keen edge on the tool. Turkey and W^ashita stones 
are the only ones that have the two good qualities 
combined of cutting quickly and leaving a good edge. 

Most other oilstones are 
slow cutters, but they are 
to be relied on for leaving 
a good, keen edge. It is 
necessar\' that the oilstone 
should be kept perfectly 
le\'el, or it will not be pos- 
sible to get a true edge. 
The stone should also be 
free from grit, or the iron 
will be gapped in sharpen- 
ing, and will lea\e ridges 
on the planed work. In 
sharpening the iron after it 
has been newly ground, the hands should be kept low to 
make the bevel correspond nearly with that made by 
the grindstone. As time goes on, when the iron is 
resharpened the hands are kept a little higher upon 
each occasion (see Fig. 97), until it becomes thick, as 
in Fig. 98; then it must be again put upon the grind- 
stone. Some workers find it convenient to use two 
oilstones — one as a quick cutter, to some extent super- 
seding the grindstone, the other for finishing the edge. 




Fig. 99 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



95 




Fig. 100 



In using the oilstone, first put a few drops of good oil 
upon the stone, and grasp the iron as in Fig. 99; the 
right hand is at the top, and the thumb and fourth 
finger pass under. Place 
the whiole of the fingers 
of the left hand upon 
the iron, with the thumb 
at the back, as seen. 
Now put the cutting 
edge (previously ground [ill 
to a bevel) upon the 
stone in an oblique di- 
rection, as shown in 
Fig. 99, bearing in mind the previous remarks on the 
necessary inclination. The iron should now be rubbed 
up and down the stone, pressing it down with both hands. 
If the edge had been examined before placing it upon 
the stone, it would have been found to show a fine white 
line. The object of sharp- 
ening is to remove this, 
which must be done by 
rubbing on an oilstone. 
Having accomplished this, 
turn the iron face down 
upon the stone, and rub it 
lightly a few times (see 
Fig. lOo). The iron should 
now have the appearances 




Fig. 101 Fig. 102 

indicated by Fig. loi. If the face of the iron has not 
been kept perfectly flat, it would appear as Fig. 98, 



96 THE UP-TO-DATE 

and would be of no use as a cutting iron. If the iron 
has been rubbed too long, a wire edge will appear and 
utterly spoil the cutting properties of the iron unless 
removed. This may readily be done b)'' rubbing the 
iron alternately upon each side until the wire edge 
falls off. 

When the iron is judged to be sufficiently sharp, it 
should be cleaned, whetted on the left hand, and its 
edge tried for keenness. Some try the edge by passing 
the thumb gently across it, but its sharpness may be 
judged by looking directly at it. In a sharp tool the 
edge is not visible to the naked eye, while if the iron 
should be blunt, the edge will be seen as a bright line. 

SECRET OR BLIND NAILING 

Secret nailing is sometimes called "blind nailing," 
also "chip nailing" and "sliver nailing," and is the 
art of finishing work in a manner which leaves no 
mark of nail holes or screw heads exposed to view, 
which, under the ordinary method of doing work, 
would require puttying before the painter could apply 
the finish. 

The process of secret nailing is only used on 
occasional jobs of hardwood finish where an extra fine 
job is required. The process is very simple and can 
be followed by any mechanic of ordinary skill and 
ability. Take a very thin and sharp paring chisel, Ys 
to ^ inch wide, to raise the "chi[). " A sharp knife 
should be used to make two cuts with the grain of the 
wood, the width of the chisel apart, to keep the sides 
of the chip from splitting. The chisel should be set at 
a steep angle at first, till the proper depth is reached, 
and then made to turn out a piece of wood of even 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



97 



thickness, about a sixteenth of an inch or near it, and 
of sufficient length to admit of driving the nail or 
screw. Care should be taken in raising the "chip" 
not to give it too sharp a curve or too great a thick- 
ness, as it is liable to break off while being straightened 
out again. 

Some mechanics prefer a gouge for raising the 
"chip"; the gouge should be ^ to ^ of an inch wide 
and of a quick curve. In this case no knife is needed, 
as the corners of the 
gouge will cut the wood 
as it advances. The 
cut being made and the 
"chip" properly raised, 
a nail or screw may be 
driven in. 

See that the nail or 
screw head is sunk be- 
low the surface of the 
recess, so that the 
"chip" will fit back in 
again without any ob- 
struction. Now take 
properly prepared glue 
and apply to the "chip" and recess, and press the 
"chip" firmly in place, rubbing the face with a smooth 
block till the glue holds, and finish by using a little 
sandpaper. 

If there is any difficulty about the "chip" breaking 
off, moisten the wood with a little water applied with 
a sponge to the part where the "chip" is to be raised. 
This will be found to be a great advantage if working 
on brittle wood. 

As stated previously, when putting up hardwood 




98 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



finish, where it is desired that no nail or screw heads 
should be in sight, it is always better to make use of 
glue whenever possible; this will be found to be much 
more satisfactory than blind nailing. 

The methods of secret nailing, as described in the 

foregoing, are 
shown in the dia- 
grams, Figs. 103 
and 104. The first 
shows how a square 
chip is raised so 
that a screw or nail 
can be put in place, 
after which the 
raised chip a can 
be glued down in 
place, covering the 
head of nail or 
screw. 
Fig. 104 shows how the work is done by using a 
gouge instead of a chisel. 

Sometimes blind nailing is done by driving headless 
nails in the edge of the work, "toe-nailing" them in 
the work just as matched flooring is laid. This is not 
a satisfactory way to do work and is not recommended, 
though there are cases where it will answer quite well. 




PART TWO 



PART TWO 
WOOD FILLERS AND HOW TO APPLY THEM 

There is no part of the art of wood-finishing that is 
more important than that of the filling, and the 
greatest of care should be exercised both in the choice 
of filler and the manner in which it is applied. The 
stain given to it must also be considered, in order that 
the color and texture of the wood being finished may 
not be disfigured or spoiled. 

Fillers are used by all expert polishers for much the 
same reason that size is used before varnishing — viz., 
to prevent immoderate absorption of the polish by 
the wood. Polish, or even thick varnish, when applied 
to wood, sinks in or is absorbed in places, instead of 
remaining on the surface in a uniform coat. Here 
and there it will be observed that the polish or varnish 
has given more gloss than elsewhere. Where the 
gloss is brightest the varnish has sunk least. 

The grain may be filled up by going over the wood 
with polish till the pores are closed, and some 
beginners may want to know why anything else in the 
nature of a filler should be used. The reason is that 
comparatively valuable French polish need not be 
used when a cheaper material serves the purpose, the 
use of which also saves time. Woods that are open 
in the grain and porous specially need a filler, while 
fine, close-grained woods do not, and may be polished 
without. Still, a suitable filler can do no harm to any 
kind of wood, however fine the grain may be, so there 
can be no disadvantage in going over it with one 

7 



8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

preparatory to polishing. Though it may be a slight 
waste of time, a preliminary rub over with polish 
suffices when working on a fine wood, such as olive 
or rosewood, which are both close and hard. To 
attain the desired thin, glossy film of shellac, which 
shall not be liable to grow dull unreasonably soon, the 
woods ordinarily used in furniture — ash, oak, mahog- 
any, walnut, cherry, etc. — should have the grain filled, 
for they are all of comparatively open grain; ash and 
oak, being especially coarse, are called by polishers 
"hungry woods." Polishers usually give such woods 
one or more coats of spirit varnish as an aid to filling 
up the grain. 

Before commencing the process of filling-in, 
thoroughly brush all dust out of the grain of the wood, 
for this is wood-dust, sand from the sandpaper, and 
dirt — all inimical to grain luster if mixed up with the 
grain stopper. 

Amongst the best "fillers" is a preparation manu- 
factured in Bridgeport, Conn., and known as "Wheeler's 
Wood-filler," and though it may cost a little more 
than home-made or other fillers, it is certain to give 
satisfaction. This filler has for its base a form of 
mineral silica in an atomic shape, which permits it to 
be ground or pulverized into a very fine, dust-like con- 
dition, in which each particle assumes a needle-pointed 
form, which enables them to enter into the pores of the 
wood and give to the work a gloss-like surface. 

P^or filling a cheap class of work, many polishers 
content themselves with giving the work one or two 
coats of glue or patent size, heavily stained by the 
addition of some dry pigment. For mahogany finish 
add \^enetian red till it gives quite a red tinge; for 
walnut add brown umber; for pine, add yellow ocher. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER g 

Apply the size hot with a brush, and rub it in lightly 
with a piece of rag, finishing the way of the grain, and 
taking care in the case of turned or moulded work to 
get the filler well in the recessed parts. Of course, 
work that has been sized will not need filling-in. 

As many different kinds of fillers are used, and each 
has its advocates, it will be advisable to name the 
principal fillers used in the trade, and to make a few 
remarks about each, so that learners can experiment 
with them, and perhaps finally fix on that which may 
seem to suit best. All will be found reliable, for 
good work is turned out by polishers with any of 
them, and even an extremely prejudiced individual 
would hesitate to say that any one is really bad, 
though he uses only that which suits him best. Some- 
times, owing to the price, he uses the easiest and 
quickest, irrespective of its quality. 

Wood-fillers ready for use are made for most kinds 
of wood, and, as a rule, they require only thinning 
with a little turpentine. When it is desired to make 
a filler instead of purchasing one ready made, proceed 
as follows: Take a portion of either china clay or 
corn-flour; add boiling linseed oil, and stir until the 
mixture is of the consistency of putty. Then add 
patent dryers and thin with turpentine. If the wood 
on which the filler is to be used is to be kept light in. 
color, use raw oil and the lightest variety of dryer. 
Further remarks on home-made fillers will be found 
later on. 

In woods employed for house and cabinet work there 
are two distinct natures; therefore different treatment 
is required in finishing. First, there is the coarse or 
open-grained wood, having its surface perforated with 
innumerable pores or cells. In order to obtain a 



lo THE UP-TO-DATE 

smooth and even finish, these pores should be filled 
up to a level with the hard grain, or, as the grainer 
would term them, the "lights" of the wood. Next 
we have the fine or close-grained wood, which, like 
the preceding, also contains these pores, but they are 
of a very fine character, and simply sealing them up 
with a liquid filler will enable one to produce a fine, 
smooth finish, which we shall consider farther on. 

I will now return to the open or wide-grained wood, 
which requires more attention and care than the 
closer-grained wood, if the same results are expected. 
There are man\' things that will serve the purpose of 
fillers and make pretty fair work; among these may 
be mentioned china clay, silver white and corn-starch; 
the best of which is probably the last named. This is 
well adapted to the work, being equally useful with 
light, or when colored with dark wood; one fault with 
it is that it never hardens. China clay — the English 
is the best — makes an exceedingly good filler; it is 
light in color, very fine and dries as hard as cement. 

There are a hundred ways of preparing fillers for 
use, and nearly as many different materials for making 
them; we would recommend, however, that wherever 
it is possible, Wheeler's patent wood filler be used; 
though we are aware that in many cases it may not 
be advisable to use it. and to meet these rare conditions 
the following mixtures may be substituted. 

A filler should be so mixed that the greater portion 
of the vehicle will penetrate into the wood, leaving 
the pigment on the surface to be rubbed into the 
pores, and still retain enough combining property to 
form a hard and impenetrable surface. This depends 
entirely upon the proportions of the vehicles employed, 
and different pigments require different quantities 



HARDWOOD FINISHER ii 

of vehicle. Proceed with the mixing by filling the 
pot two-thirds full of the dry pigment, then add 
boiled linseed oil, producing the consistency of putty, 
then dilute with about one part japan and two parts 
turpentine. Should it be required to keep the wood 
as light as possible, replace the boiled oil with raw, 
using a smaller quantity, but a little more japan. For 
all light wood the light japan should be preferred, 
although there are 'many who never use anything but 
the common brown. Naphtha can also be employed in 
place of the turpentine, somewhat reducing the 
expense; but, as naphtha evaporates much faster, it 
prevents the operator from covering an extended 
surface without running the risk of having it dry 
hard. This causes difficulty at "rubbing it in" and 
wiping off the surplus, although "wiping off" should 
not proceed until the filler has flatted — or, at least, 
"set." This to a certain extent the operator can 
accelerate or retard by omitting or adding a small 
quantity of oil, keeping in view the fact that the 
smaller the quantity of oil used, the lighter colored, 
but the less durable, will be the finish. 

Oil is sometimes used as a filler, but its use is not 
recommended; applied directly to the wood, its effect 
is to swell the fibers, or "raise the grain," which 
remains in that condition until the oil becomes entirely 
dry or disappears. During this time the fibers are 
gradually shrinking, and consequently moving or 
checking the varnish. The qualities essential to a 
good filler are that it shall readily enter the porous 
portion of the wood, and shall very soon harden and 
render the wood impervious to the varnish, which 
should lie smoothly upon the surface, giving brilliancy 
and effect to the natural beautv of the wood; and that 



12 THE LP -TO -DATE 

it shall not raise the ^rain of the wood; and that it 
shall not change the color of the wood. These con- 
ditions are satisfactorily fulfilled by few of the home- 
made fillers ordinarily used in shops, and while I giv^e 
a number of recipes, my readers are advised that they 
will obtain better satisfaction, at less cost, by purchas- 
ing some of the patent fillers now coming into general 
use. In these fillers very little oil is used and a large 
amount of dryers, so that the wood becomes perfectly 
dry and hard in a few hours, preventing any swelling 
or shrinking of the fibers of the wood after the varnish 
is applied. The following fillers should be allowed to 
dry until quite hard. A period of about eight hours is 
usually sufficient, but it is better to let the work stand 
for twenty-four hours before touching it with sand- 
paper. In applying a filler it should always be borne 
in mind that the substance of wood consists of a 
multitude of small tubes lying side by side. These 
tubes or cells are not continuous from top to bottom 
of the tree, but are comparatively short and taper out 
to points so that they are thickest in the middle. Most 
of the common woods have the walls of these tubes so 
thin that liquid is readily absorbed by them and carried 
into the substance for some distance. Different kinds 
of wood differ much in the shape and arrangement of 
these cells. In filling the pores the first step is taken 
in providing an absolutely smooth surface. We trust 
mainly to mechanical force in rubbing in, aided by the 
absorptive powers of the wood. Formerly successive 
varnishings and rubbings and scrapings took much 
time, and when they were done, the final finish had 
still to be applied, but the whole process has now been 
simplified, by using fillers. 

The careful workman will not leave "great daubs" 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 13 

of superfluous filler here and there on the work, but 
will see that all corners and heads and quirks of 
mouldings are well cleaned off before it gets too hard 
to remove easily, and should there be any nail holes — 
which there ought not to be — he will have them filled 
with properly colored putty or cement and nicely 
smoothed down before he makes any attempt to put 
on his finishing coats. 

Among the many home-made fillers I have 
endeavored to select the best. 

Walnut Filler. — For Medium and Cheap Work. Ten 
lb. bolted English whiting, 3 lb. dry burnt umber, 4 
lb. Vandyke brown, 3 lb. calcined plaster, ^ lb. 
Venetian red, I gaL boiled linseed oil, ^ gal. spirits 
turpentine, i quart black japan. Mix well and apply 
with brush; rub well with excelsior or tow, clean off 
with rags. 

Walnut Filler. — For Imitation Wax-Finish. Five lb. 
bolted whiting, i lb. calcined plaster, 6 oz. calcined 
magnesia, I oz. dry burnt umber, I oz. French yellow, 
I quart raw linseed oil, i quart benzine spirits, ^ pint 
very thin white shellac. Mix well and apply with a 
brush. Rub well in and clean off with rags. Before 
using the above filling, give the work one coat of white 
shellac. When dry, sandpaper down and apply the 
filler. 

Walnut Filler. — For First-Class Work. Three lb. 
burnt umber ground in oil, I lb. burnt sienna ground 
in oil, I quart spirits of turpentine, i pint brown japan. 
Mix well and apply with a brush; sandpaper well; 
clean off with tow and rags. This gives a beautiful 
chocolate color to the wood. 

Filler for Light Woods. — Five lb. bolted English 
whiting, 3 lb. calcined plaster, i lb, corn-starch, 3 oz. 



14 THE UP-TO-DATE 

calcined magnesia, ^ gallon raw linseed oil, i quart 
spirits of turpentine, i quart brown japan, and 
sufficient French yellow to tinge the white. Mix well 
and apply with a brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, 
and clean off with rags. 

Filler for Cherry. — Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2 
lb. calcined plaster, 13^ oz. dry burnt sienna, i oz. 
Venetian red, i quart boiled linseed oil, I pint spirits 
of turpentine, i pint brown japan. Mix well, rub in 
with excelsior or tow and clean off with rags. 

Filler for Oak. — Five lb. bolted English whiting, 2 
lb. calcined plaster, i oz. dry burnt sienna, yo oz. dry 
French yellow, i quart raw linseed oil, i pint benzine 
spirits, ^ pint white shellac. Mix well, apply with 
brush, rub in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with 
rag. 

Filler for Rosewood. — Six lb. bolted English whiting, 
2 lb. calcined plaster, i lb. rose pink, 2 oz. Venetian 
red, Yt, lb. Vandyke brown, j5^ lb. brandon red, i gallon 
boiled linseed oil, yz gallon spirits of turpentine, i 
quart black japan. Mix well, apply with brush, rub 
in with excelsior or tow, and clean off with rags. 

Another.— Stir boiled oil and corn-starch into a very 
thick paste; add a little japan, and reduce with turpen- 
tine, but add no color for light ash. For dark ash and 
chestnut use a little raw sienna; for walnut, burnt 
umber, add a small quantity of Venetian red; for bay 
wood, burnt sienna. In no case use more color than is 
required to overcome the w^hite appearance of the 
starch, unless it is wished to stain the wood. The 
filler is worked with brush and rags in the usual 
manner. Let it dry forty-eight hours, or until it is in 
condition to rub down with No. sandpaper without 
much gumming up, and if an extra fine finish is desired. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 15 

fill again with the same materials, using less oil, but 
more of japan and turpentine. 

Another. — Take three papers corn-starch, one quart 
boiled linseed oil, two quarts turpentine, one-quarter 
pint japan; cut in half the turpentine before mixing; 
it will not cut perfectly otherwise. For dark woods 
add burnt umber to color. When nearly dry, rub off 
with cloths. The above mixture must be used fresh, 
as it is of no value after it is four or five days old. 
The cloths used in rubbing as above mentioned should 
be destroyed immediately after use, as spontaneous 
combustion is likely to ensue from the ingredients 
employed. As a filler of wood to be stained, apply 
French plaster of Paris, mixed as a creamy paste with 
water, and after rubbing in, clean any surplus off; or 
use whiting finely powdered, or white lead slacked 
with painters' drying oil, and used as a filler. Another 
process is that of oiling, then rubbing crosswise to the 
grain with a sponge dipped in thin polish composed 
of melted beeswax, resin, and shellac, and smoothing 
the surface, when dry, with pumice-stone, or fine glass 
paper. Embody the work a second time with thicker 
polish, or a mixture of polish and varnish. The 
rubbers will work easily with half the quantity of oil 
which is ordinarily used. This second body should be 
rubbed very smooth with moist putty. 

In the use of any filler, care must be taken in the 
selection of color, for the employment of a light 
colored filler on dark wood or vice versa would result 
in gross defacement, as the lighter color would show 
at the pores of the wood in the one case, and the 
darker in the other. Therefore, to avoid this, the filler 
should be as near as possible the color of the wood to 
be filled. 



i6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

As a general thing, paint manufacturers who do not 
make fillers a specialty use opaque colors to stain their 
filler, as it requires a less quantity. This will do 
sometimes, but not always. Hut those which give to 
the wood a clear and bright ap[)carance, and there- 
fore produce the best results, are stained with trans- 
parent colors; those chiefly employed are burnt 
umber and sienna, Venetian red, Vandyke brown and 
charcoal black, the charcoal being ground fine in oil, 
while the others can be used dry and according to the 
following recipes with good results: 

In mixing any or all dark fillers the same pigments 
used for the light (previously described) should be 
kept for a basis,, with sufficient coloring to stain it to 
the desired depth of shade. 

Filler for walnut is very often stained with burnt 
umber; this is reddish in hue and gives to the wood a 
pleasing effect. Others use Venetian red, darkened 
somewhat with lampblack; this is rather opaque, and 
tends to deaden the color of the wood. There is 
another article —namel)', Vandyke brown — which gives 
fair results. In order to obtain a rich effect, the filler 
should be made considerably darker than the wood 
when new. 

Fillers for mahogany, cherry, California redwood, 
and other woods of similar shade, should be stained 
with bunrt sienna, as they should be finished very clear. 
It is well to know that charcoal black and Venetian red 
will give the desired shade for any dark-colored wood 
in common use or for all colors in antique, but it does 
not show up quite as clear as some other combinations. 

For rosewood, charcoal as a stain will suffice, and 
for vanilla or Brazil-wood the use of rose-pink will give 
good results. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 17 

The methods of mixing these fillers are quite 
numerous. It is impossible to give the proportions 
definitely, owing to the strength of the colors or the 
transparency of the chief ingredient, but one cannot 
go astray by following the preceding rules. 

Mix the light pigment to a paste with boiled oil, 
which must be well stirred up. Then in another pot 
mix a quantity of the colored pigment with turpentine 
or naphtha; and when thoroughly "cut," or dissolved, 
add sufficient of it to the light to give the shade 
required. After this is obtained, dilute with turpentine 
or naphtha and japan, as directed in mixing light 
filler. This applies to all colors except black, which 
is seldom obtained finely ground unless in oil, and 
properly thinned down. 

There are many finishers and firms who exclusively 
use manufactured fillers, and in consequence meet with 
many difficulties as to the shade they require, as 
different manufacturers use different colors to stain 
their filler. But this difficulty can be overcome by a 
few experiments with the above-named stains. 

As the foregoing gives pretty nearly all the fillers in 
general use, with the exception of some of the manu- 
factured mineral preparations of which I will have 
more to say further on, I will now proceed to describe 
the method of application. The secret of this is to 
do the work well, quickly and economically. These 
points are dealt with in the following: 

Have your filler mixed to the consistency of 
ordinary lead paint; then apply to the prepared 
surface of the wood with a pound brush, or, what is 
still better, a 3-0 or 4-0 oval chisel varnish brush. In 
applying the filler it is not necessary to cover all the 
small beads and carvings; and if the filler be light, 



i8 



THE Ur- TO -DATE 



better avoid coating them at all; and if dark or 
antique, stain them with a little of the filler, 
much reduced with spirits of turpentine. For 
this purpose have at hand a small pot with a 
small fitch or sash tool. 

By not filling the beads and carvings, the 
varnish is not so liable to run down in them, 
although sufficient remains to produce a finish 
equal to the balance of the surface. 

After enough surface has been covered with 
the filler, so that what has been first applied 
begins to flatten, the process of wiping should 
immediately begin, using for that purpose 
either a rag or a handful of waste or excelsior. 
If the wood is very open grained, waste is 
preferable. With a piece of this that has 
previously been used and is pretty well sup- 
plied with filler, rub crosswise of the grain, 
rather rubbing it into the grain than wiping it 
off. After the whole surface has been gone 
over in this way, take a clean piece of waste 
or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean) 
and wipe the surface perfectly clean and free 
from filler, using a wooden pick (Fig. 105), the 
point of which has been covered with a rag or 
waste, to clean out the corners, beads, etc. It 
is well to give these picks some attention, as 
a person once accustomed to certain tools can 
accomplish more and better w^ork than with 
tools that feel strange in his hands; therefore, 
Fig 105^^^^ finisher should furnish his own pick. As 
to their construction, these are best made 
from second-growth hickory, which can be procured at 
any carriage repair shop, such as old spokes, broken 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



19 



felloes, etc. They are made eight inches in length, 
half inch oval at one end and tapering down to the 
point at the other. Sharpen the oval end like a cold 
chisel, then smooth with sandpaper, which should also 
be used to sharpen the tool when the same becomes 
worn dull. 

This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can 
be accelerated by the use of picking brushes, several 
of which I show in Fig. 106, and which are manu. 
factured especially for that purpose, but it is not 




Fig. 106 



advisable to use them on very coarsely grained wood, 
as they scrub the filler out of the pores. 

There are several fillers used wliich do not require 
this picking and scrubbing. One is a liquid filler used 
chiefly for carriage finishing; but it can be used suc- 
cessfully on butternut, bird's-eye maple, curly maple, 
satinwood, hickory, etc. It is made from gum and 
oil. Another is a filler made from finely ground 
pumice-stone, mixed as other fillers. It is applied 
with a brush, and must be left to dry at least twenty- 
four hours; it is then sandpapered smooth, when an oil 



20 THE UP-TO-DATE 

varnish is applied, renderin<j; it completely transparent. 
This last can be used only upon light wood. 

The workman, as a matter of course, will under- 
stand that different woods require slightly different 
treatment, and the finer-grained woods, among which 
are the pines, maples, cedars and poplars, of different 
varieties, and birch, cherry, beech, sycamore, white 
box, satinwood, etc., require no filling, not that a 
filling would prove detrimental to the finish — except 
upon stained work or white holly, which in order to 
maintain a clear color should never be filled — but, from 
the condition of all fine wood, it is superfluous, and 
only causes unnecessary labor and expense. At this 
point it will be convenient to pause to consider the 
subject of mineral or prepared wood-fillers. 

A great deal of time and money have been wasted 
in attempting to make good fillers, to no purpose, and 
a great variety — as I have shown — of substances, as 
chalk, plaster of Paris, corn-starch, etc., etc., have 
been mixed with various vehicles and rubbed into the 
wood with but indifferent success. Most of these 
compounds labor under the disadvantages of forming 
chemical compounds wnth the oil and consequently 
they shrink very much on drying, so that though the 
surface may appear smooth when they are first put on, 
waves and hollows make their appearance as they dry. 
These waves, having round edges, are difificult to fill, 
the second coat building up as much or more upon the 
level spaces as in the hollows. It sometimes seems 
almost impossible with these fillers in the latter coats 
to make the hollows hold any substance, the filler 
clinging chiefly to the surfaces. 

I have thought it necessary to show how the ordinary 
or home-made fillers act, and fail, in order to show by 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 21 

contrast how much easier it is to work efficiently with 
the mineral fillers.' The mineral quartz, when mixed 
with oil, probably shrinks less in drying than any other 
similar known mixture. If a surface of wood be 
covered with this and then rubbed, the sharp and 
angular particles of the silica imbed themselves in the 
pores of the wood, closing them up, while the oil 
cements them fast. This is the foundation of 
Wheeler's wood filler, which we recommend for use 
by all wood finishers. When the pores have been 
filled with silica, and are cemented fast by the proper 
mixture of gums and oils, the difficult part of the work 
is done. 

After a good surface has been made upon the article 
it is ready for the filler, which is to be selected 
according to the color desired. In putting the filler 
on, it is thinned with turpentine until about like flowing 
varnish, and is applied with a brush. Only so much of 
the surface is covered as can be cleaned off before t 
hardens. When it has set so that the gloss has left the 
surface, it is at once rubbed off with excelsior or 
shavings, going across the grain with the strokes. If 
the filler dries too fast or too light, a little raw linseed 
oil may be used in it. 

Perhaps a better material for rubbing off than 
excelsior is hemp, or "flax tow." At any rate, the 
work should be finished with some finer material than 
excelsior. 

For a nicer job the filler is rubbed in with a rubber, 
made by gluing a piece of sole or belt leather on the 
face of a block of wood and trimming the edges flush 
with the block. The rubbing is done after the filler 
has set and before it is cleaned off. If it dries off too 
light, a little white japan may be added on nice work. 



22 THE UP-TO-DATE 

The light-colored filler should be used on all work 
where light and dark woods are used together. The 
filling, it must be understood, is done by the silica, 
which will often be found in the shape of a sediment 
in the bottom of the mixture. Eight hours is generally 
considered a sufficient time for the filler to dry. 

When the work with the filler is done, the surface of 
the wood ought to be like so much ground glass. Such 
portions of the wood as show a solid grain need very 
little filler. On Georgia pine, after the filler is dry, a 
little rubbing in the direction of the grain with very 
fine sandpaper is an advantage. If the filler has been 
properly used the desired results will be obtained with 
little labor. 

The wood is now in a condition to receive the final 
coatings. Whether the work is to be polished or 
"dead finished," do not employ shellac or "French 
polish." If a "dead" surface is wanted, wax finish is 
easily put on, and as easily rubbed to a good surface. 
Several manufacturers in this country prepare a wax 
finish, which is a convenient preparation of wax and 
gums, and can be applied with a brush and then rubbed 
down with a woolen cloth, tied up to make a hard 
rubber, until a fine, lusterless surface is obtained. 
With mahogany and similar woods this greatly 
improves the color of the wood. When this has dried, 
which will be in the course of a few hours, the work is 
ready for use. The wax finish, like many of the 
furniture creams, has the advantage that it can be put 
on in a few minutes at any time to brighten up work 
when it has become dull. A piece of work prepared in 
this way, after four operations, will present as fine an 
appearance as the best cabinet work found in the 
furniture stores. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 23 

The materials which have been described, it will be 
noticed, are both manufactured articles. The prepared 
filler is indispensable; the wax finish can be made by 
mixing together, by the aid of heat, white wax and 
spirits of turpentine until they are of the consistency 
of thick paste. Another wax finish is made of bees- 
wax, spirits of turpentine and linseed oil in equal parts. 
The addition of two drams of alkanet root to every 
twenty ounces of turpentine darkens and enriches the 
color. The root is to be put into a little bag and 
allowed to stand in the turpentine until it is sufficiently 
colored. 

, An altogether more durable surface can be made by 
a little change in the treatment. When the wood is 
filled, instead of applying the wax, take some hard 
oil finish, "Luxeberry," a preparation manufactured 
in Detroit, Mich., and put it on with a brush precisely 
like varnish. The coat should not be too heavy, 
especially on vertical surfaces, and the brush used 
ought to be a good one. This material gives a most 
brilliant polish. By rubbing it down with a woolen 
cloth and pumice-stone powder it can also be made 
dull. Hard-oil finish does not spot with hot or cold 
water, is slightly elastic and is not injured by pretty 
severe soaking in water. It gets hard in twelve hours 
or less in warm weather, and overnight in winter time. 
It is one of the best surfaces which can be used, and 
has the advantage of working very well in the hands 
of one who is not an expert in the art of finishing wood 
or handling varnish. It will make a very fair surface 
applied direct to the unfilled wood, in which case it is 
a good substitute for shellac. 

Wax finish has the advantage that scratches can be 
easily repaired without sending to the cabinetmaker 



24 THE UP-TO-DATE 

or the painter. Here a word of advice to the 
carpenter who does any work of this character may 
save him some trouble and make way for the further 
use of the same kind of finish. When the woodwork 
of a house is treated in this way, be sure to leave a 
little bottle of the wax polish with the housekeeper, 
with directions as to the method of using it. In send- 
ing out a "what-not," bookcase, or any other article 
of similar kind, put up a little bottle of the polish and 
show the owner, or, preferably the lady of the house, 
how to repair any little scratch and make the work 
look "as good as new." The fresh appearance of the 
work will be a good advertisement, while it will pre- 
vent complaints and dissatisfaction that often follow 
the use of work which, when injured, cannot be 
restored. 

It may be said that either of the methods of finishing 
involves a great deal of labor. This is true; but the 
amount is not much greater than is needed for three 
coats of paint, and the cost of the paint would probably 
be more than the cost of the finish. The labor in one 
case can be of a cheap character, and in the other an 
experienced painter must be employed. The profit 
upon the "dead finish" can go into the pocket of the 
carpenter, while that of the painting must in an\' event 
be divided between the carpenter and painter, or 
belong to the latter altogether, who is, after all, the 
proper person to do the work. 

I have now said about all that is necessary in the 
matter of "fillers" and "filling," but, as it sometimes 
happens that the old system of "sizing" has to be 
resorted to for certain kinds of ^vork, I give herewith 
a formula for its construction and use: 

Size of different kinds is sometimes applied to the 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 25 

surface of wood to prevent absorption of the varnish. 
The kind of material used for the size is not important, 
the object being only to prevent absorption by a very 
thin coat of some substance not soluble in the varnish. 
For dark-colored wood, thin size, made by reducing 
ordinary glue with water, is generally used; but for 
lighter-colored surfaces a white size is used, which is 
prepared by boiling white kid or other leather or 
parchment-cuttings in water for a few hours, or until 
it forms a thin, jelly-like substance, which is reduced 
with water to a thin consistency, and used in a tepid 
state. Sometimes solutions of isinglass or tragacanth 
are employed in like manner. Unlike the best fillers, 
sizes of any kind do not improve the finish, and are 
sometimes a positive detriment to it. They are used 
solely as an economy to reduce the quantity of the 
varnish needed; and their use is not recommended for 
the best work. 

WOOD-STAINING GENERALLY 

There are many cases where an article constructed 
of wood may be more conveniently and suitably 
finished by staining and polishing than by painting. 
The practice of staining woods is much less common 
in America and England than on the Continent, where 
workmen, familiar with the different washes, produce 
the most delicate tones of color and shade. Wood is 
often stained to imitate darker and dearer varieties, 
but more legitimately to improve the natural 
appearance by heightening and bringing out the 
original markings, or by giving a definite color with- 
out covering the surface and hiding the nature of the 
material by coats of paint. The best woods for stain- 
ing are those of close, even texture, as pe^r and cherry. 



26 THE UP-TO-DATE 

birch, beech, and maple, though softer and coarser 
kinds may be treated with good effect. The wood 
should be dried, and if an even tint is desired, its 
surface planed and sandpapered. All the stains 
should, if possible, be applied hot, as they thus pene- 
trate more deeply into the pores. If the wood is to be 
varnished, and not subjected to much handling, almost 
any of the brilliant mordants used in wool and cotton 
dyeing may be employed in an alcoholic solution; 
but when thus colored it has an unnatural appearance, 
and is best used on small surfaces only, for inlaying, 
etc. The ebonized wood, of late years so much in 
vogue, is in many respects the most unsatisfactory of 
the stains, as the natural character and markings are 
completely blotted out, and it shows the least scratch 
or rubbing. Sometimes, in consequence of the quality 
of the wood under treatment, it must be freed from its 
natural colors by a preliminary bleaching process. To 
this end it is saturated as completely as possible with 
a clear solution of 173^ oz. chloride of lime and 2 oz. 
soda crystals, in 10^ pints water. In this liquid the 
wood is steeped for ^ hour, if it does not appear to 
injure its texture. After this bleaching, it is immersed 
in a solution of sulphurous acid to remove all traces 
of chlorine, and then washed in pure water. The 
sulphurous acid, which may cling to the wood in spite 
of washing, does not appear to injure it, nor alter the 
colors which are applied. 

Black. — (i) Obtained by boiling together blue 
Brazil-wood, powdered gall-apples, and alum, in rain 
or river water, until it becomes black. This liquid is 
then filtered through a fine organdie, and the objects 
painted with a new brush before the decoction has 
cooled, and this repeated until the wood appears of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 2^ 

a fine black color. It is then coated with the follow- 
ing liquid: A mixture of iron filings, vitriol, and 
vinegar is heated (without boiling), and left a few 
days to settle. Even if the wood is black enough, yet, 
for the sake of durability, it must be coated with a 
solution of alum and nitric acid, mixed with a little 
verdigris; then a decoction of gall-apples and logwood 
dyes is used to give it a deep black. A decoction may 
be made of brown Brazil-wood with alum in rain- 
water, without gall-apples; the wood is left standing 
in it for some days in a moderately warm place, and 
to it merely iron filings in strong vinegar are added, 
and both are boiled with the wood over a gentle fire. 
For this purpose soft pear-wood is chosen, which is 
preferable to all others for black staining. 

(2) I oz. nut-gall broken into small pieces, put into 
barely ^ pint vinegar, which must be contained in an 
open vessel; let stand for about ^ hour; add I oz. 
steel filings; the vinegar will then commence effer- 
vescing; cover up, but not sufficient to exclude all air. 
The solution must then stand for about 2^ hours, when 
it will be ready for use. Apply the solution with a 
brush or piece of rag to the article, then let it remain 
until dry; if not black enough, coat it until it is — each 
time, of course, letting it remain sufficiently long to 
dry thoroughly. After the solution is made, keep it 
in a closely corked bottle. 

(3) One gal. water, i lb. logwood chips, ^ lb. black 
copperas, ^ lb. extract of logwood, y^ lb. indigo blue, 
2 oz. lampblack. Put these into an iron pot and boil 
them over a slow fire. When the mixture is cool, 
strain it through a cloth, add % oz. nut-gall. It is 
(hen ready for use. This is a good black for all kinds 
of cheap work. 



28 THE UP-TO-DATE 

(4) Two hundred fifty parts of Campeachy wood, 
2000 water, and 30 copper sulphate; the wood is 
allowed to stand 24 hours in Ihis liquor, dried in the 
air, and finally immersed in iron nitrate liquor at 4° B. 

(5) Boil 8^ oz. logwood in 70 oz. water and I oz. 
blue stone, and steep the wood for 24 hours. Take 
out, expose to the air for a long time, and then steep 
for 12 hours in a solution of iron nitrate at 4° B. If 
the black is not fine, steep again in the logwood liquor. 

(6) It is customary to employ the clear liquid 
obtained by trc^ating 2 parts powdered galls with 15 
parts wine, and mixing the filtered licjuid with a 
solution of iron protosulphate. Reimann recommends 
the use of water in the place of wine. 

(7) Almost an}' wood can be dyed black by the 
following means: Take logwood extract such as is 
found in commerce, powder i oz., and boil it in 3^4^ 
pints of water; when the extract is dissolved, add I dr. 
potash yellow chromate (not the bichromate), and 
agitate the whole. The operation is now finished, and 
the liquid will serve equally well to write with or to 
stain wood. Its color is a very fine dark purple, which 
becomes a pure black when applied to the wood. 

(8) For black and gold furniture, procure I lb. log- 
wood chips, add 2 qt. water, boil i hour, brush the 
liquor in hot, when dry give another coat. Now 
procure i oz. green copperas, dissolve it in warm 
water, well mix, and brush the solution over the wood; 
it will bring out a fine black; but the wood should be 
dried outdoors, as the black sets better. A common 
stove brush is best. If polish cannot be used, proceed 
as follows: Fill up the grain with black glue — i.e., 
thin glue and lampblack — brushed over the parts 
accessible (not in the carvings) ; when dry, paper down 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 29 

with fine paper. Now procure, say, a gill of French 
polish, in which mix i oz> best ivory black, or gas- 
black is best, well shake it until quite a thick pasty 
mass, procure ^ pint brown hard varnish, pour a 
portion into a cup, add enough black polish to make it 
quite dark, then varnish the work; two thin coats are 
better than one thick coat. The first coat may be 
sandpapered down where accessible, as it will look 
better. A coat of glaze over the whole gives a piano 
finish. N.B. — Enough varnish should be mixed at 
once for the job to make it all one color — i.e., good 
black. 

(9) For table. Wash the surface of table with 
liquid ammonia, applied with a piece of rag; the 
varnish will then peel off like a skin; afterwards 
smooth down with fine sandpaper. Mix % lb. 
lampblack with I qt. hot water, adding a little glue 
size; rub this stain well in; let it dry before sand- 
papering it; smooth again. Mind you do not work 
through the stain. Afterwards apply the following 
black varnish with a broad, fine camel-hair brush: Mix 
a small quantity of gas-black with the varnish. If 
one coat of varnish is not sufficient, apply a second 
one after the first is dry. Gas-black can be obtained 
by boiling a pot over the gas, letting the pot nearly 
touch the burner, when a fine jet black will form on 
the bottom, which remove, and mix with the varnish. 
Copper vessels give the best black; it may be collected 
from barbers' warming pots. 

(10) Black-board wash, or "liquid slating." — {a) 
Four pints 95 per cent alcohol, 8 oz. shellac, 12 dr. 
lampblack, 20 dr. ultramarine blue, 4 oz, powdered 
rotten stone, 6 oz. powdered pumice, (b) i gal. 95 per 
cent alcohol, i lb, shellac, 8 oz, best ivory black, 5 oz, 



30 THE UP-TO-DATE 

finest flour emery, 4 oz. ultramarine blue. Make a 
perfect solution of the shellac in the alcohol before 
adding the other articles. To apply the slating, have 
the surface smooth and perfectly free from grease; 
well shake the bottle containing the preparation, and 
pour out a small quantity only into a dish, and apply 
it with a new flat varnish brush as rapidly as possible. 
Keep the bottle well corked, and shake it up each 
time before pouring out the liquid, (c) Lampblack 
and flour of emery mixed with spirit varnish. No 
more lampblack and flour of emery should be used than 
are sufficient to give the required black abrading sur- 
face. The thinner the mixture the better. Lamp- 
black should first be ground with a small quantity of 
spirit varnish or alcohol to free it from lumps. The 
composition should be applied to the smoothly planed 
surface of a board with a common paint brush. Let it 
become thoroughly dr^^ and hard before it is used. 
Rub it down with pumice if too rough, {d) ^ gal. 
shellac varnish, 5 oz. lampblack, 3 oz. powdered iron 
ore or emery; if too thick, thin with alcohol. Give 
3 coats of the composition, allowing each to dry before 
putting on the next; the first may be of shellac and 
lampblack alone, {e) To make i gal. of the paint for 
a blackboard, take 10 oz. pulverized and sifted pumice, 
6 oz. powdered rotten stone (infusorial silica), 3,4 lb. 
good lampblack, and alcohol enough to form with 
these a thick paste, which must be well rubbed and 
ground together. Then dissolve 14 oz. shellac in the. 
remainder of the gallon of alcohol by digestion and 
agitation, and finally mix this varnish and the paste 
together. It is applied to the board with a brush, care 
being taken to keep the paint well stirred, so that the 
pumice will not settle. Two coats are usually necessary. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 31 

The first should be allowed to dry thoroughly before 
the second is put on, the latter being applied so as not 
to disturb or rub off any portion of the first. One 
gallon of this paint will ordinarily furnish 2 coats for 60 
sq. yd. of blackboard. When the paint is to be put 
on plastered walls, the wall should be previously 
coated with glue size — i lb. glue, i gal. water, enough 
lampblack to color; put on hot. (/) Instead of the 
alcohol mentioned in b, take a solution of borax in 
water; dissolve the shellac in this and color with 
lampblack. (^) Dilute soda silicate (water-glass) with 
an equal bulk of water, and add sufficient lampblack 
to color it. The lampblack should be ground with 
water and a little of the silicate before being added to 
the rest of the liquid 

(11) 17.5 oz. Brazil-wood and 0.525 oz. alum are 
boiled for i hour in 2.75 lb. water. The colored 
liquor is then filtered from the boiled Brazil-wood, 
and applied several times boiling hot to the wood to 
be stained. This will assume a violet color. This 
violet color can be easily changed into black by 
preparing a solution of 2.1 oz. iron filings, and 1.05 
oz. common salt in 17.5 oz. vinegar. The solution is 
filtered, and applied to the wood, which will then 
acquire a beautiful black color. 

(12) 8.75 oz. gall-nuts and 2.2 lb. logwood are 
boiled in 2.2 lb. rain-water for i hour in a copper 
boiler. The decoction is then filtered through a cloth, 
and applied several times while it is still warm to the 
article of wood to be stained. In this manner a beauti- 
ful black will be obtained. 

(13) This is prepared by dissolving 0.525 oz. log- 
wood extract in 2.2 lb. hot rain-water, and by adding 
to the logwood solution 0.035 oz. potash chromate. 



32 THE UP-TO-DATE 

When this is applied several times to the article to be 
stained, a dark brown color will first be obtained. To 
change this into a deep chrome-black, the solution of 
iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, given under 
(ii) is applied to the wood, and the desired color will 
be produced. 

(14) Several coats of alizarine ink are applied to 
the wood, but every coat must be thoroughly dry 
before the other is put on. When the articles are dry, 
the solution of iron filings, common salt, and vinegar, 
as given in (11), is applied to the wood, and a very 
durable black will be obtained. 

(15) According to Herzog, a black stain for wood, 
giving to it a color resembling ebony, is obtained by 
treating the wood with two fluids, one after the other. 
The first fluid to be used consists of a very concentrated 
solution of logwood, and to 0.35 oz. of this fluid are 
added 0.017 oz. alum. The other fluid is obtained by 
digesting iron filings in vinegar. After the wood has 
been dipped in the first hot fluid, it is allowed to dry, 
and is then treated with the second fluid, several times 
if necessary. 

(16) Sponge the wood with a solution of aniline 
chlorhydrate in water, to which a small quantity of 
copper chloride is added. Allow it to dry, and go 
over it with a solution of potassium bichromate. 
Repeat the process two or three times, and the wood 
will take a fine black color. 

Blue. — (i) Powder a little Prussian blue, and mix to 
the consistency of paint with beer; brush it on the 
wood, and when dry size it with glue dissolved in 
boiling water; apply lukewarm, and let this dry also; 
then \'arnish or French polish. 

(2) Indigo solution, or a concentrated .hot solution 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 33 

of blue vitriol, followed by a dip in a solution of 
washing soda. 

(3) Prepare as for violet, and dye with aniline blue. 

(4) A beautiful blue stain is obtained by gradually 
stirring 0.52 oz. finely powdered indigo into 4.2 oz. 
sulphuric acid of 60 per cent, and by exposing this 
mixture for 12 hours to a temperature of 77° F. (25° 
C). The mass is then poured into 1 1-13. 2 lb. rain- 
water, and filtered through felt. This filtered water 
is applied several times to the wood, until the desired 
color has been obtained. The more the solution is 
diluted with water, the lighter will be the color. 

(5) 1.05 oz. finest indigo carmine, dissolved in 8.75 
oz. water, applied several times to the articles to be 
stained. A very fine blue is in this manner obtained. 

(6) 3.5 oz. French verdigris are dissolved in 3.5 oz. 
urine and 8.75 oz. wine vinegar. The solution is 
filtered and applied to the article to be stained. Then 
a solution of 2.1 oz. potash carbonate in 8.75 oz. rain- 
water is prepared, and the article colored with the 
verdigris is brushed over with this solution until the 
desired blue color makes its appearance. 

(7) The newest processes of staining wood blue are 
those with aniline colors. The following colors may 
be chosen for the staining liquor: Bleu de Lyon 
(reddish blue), bleu de lumiere (pure blue), light blue 
(greenish blue). These colors are dissolved in the 
proportion of I part coloring substance to 30 of spirit 
of wine, and the wood is treated with the solution. 

Brown. — (i) Various tones may be produced by 
mordanting with potash chromate, and applying a 
decoction of fustic, of logwood, or of peachwood. 

(2) Sulphuric acid, more or less diluted according to 
the intensity of the color to be produced, is applied 



34 THE UP-TO-DATE 

with a brush to the wood, i)reviously cleaned and 
dried. A lighter or darker brown stain is obtained, 
according to the strength of the acid. When the acid 
has acted sufficiently, its further action is arrested by 
the application of ammonia. 

(3) Tincture of iodine yields a fine brown color- 
ation, which, however, is not permanent unless the air 
is excluded by a thick coating of polish. 

(4) A simple brown wash is ^ oz. alkanet root, I 
oz. aloes, i oz. dragons' blood, digested in i lb. alcohol. 
This is applied after the wood has been washed with 
aqua regia, but is, like all the alcoholic washes, not 
very durable. 

Ebonizing. — (i) Boil i lb. logwood chips i hour in 2 
qt. water; brush the hot liquor over the work to be 
stained, lay aside to dry; when dry give another coat, 
still using it hot. When the second coat is dry, brush 
the following liquor over the work: i oz. green 
copperas to i qt. hot water, to be used when the 
copperas is all dissolved. It will bring out an intense 
black when dry. For staining, the work must not be 
dried by fire, but in the sunshine, if possible; if not, 
in a warm room, away from the fire. To polish this 
work, first give a coating of \'ery thin glue size, and 
when quite dry paper off very lightly with No. o paper, 
only just enough to render smooth, but not to remove 
the black stain. Then make a rubber of wadding 
about the size of a walnut, moisten the rubber with 
French polish, cover the whole tightly with a double 
linen rag, put one drop of oil on the surface, and rub 
the work with a circular motion. Should the rubber 
stick it requires more polish. Previous to putting the 
French polish on the wadding pledget, it ought to be 
mixed with the best drop black, in the proportion of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 35 

)^ oz. drop black to a gill of French polish. When the 
work has received one coat, set it aside to dry for 
about an hour. After the first coat is laid on and 
thoroughly dry, it should be partly papered off with 
No, o paper. This brings the surface even, and at the 
same time fills up the grain. Now give a second coat 
as before. Allow 24 hours to elapse, again paper off, 
and give a final coat as before. Now comes "spiriting 
off." Great care must be used here, or the work will 
be dull instead of bright. A clean rubber must be 
made, as previously described, but instead of being 
moistened with polish it must be wetted with spirits 
of wine placed in a linen rag screwed into a tight, 
even-surfaced ball, just touched on the face with a 
drop of oil, and then rubbed lightly and quickly in 
circular sweeps all over the work from top to bottom. 
One application of spirits is usually enough if sufficient 
has been placed on the rubber at the outset, but it is 
better to use rather too little than too much at a 
time, as an excess will entirely remove the polish, 
when the work will have to be polished again. Should 
this be the case, paper off at once, and commence as 
at first. It is the best way in the end. {Smither.) 

(2) Lauber dissolves extract of logwood in boiling 
water until the solution indicates 0° Beaume. Five pints 
of the solution is then mixed with 2% pints pyrolig- 
ncous iron mordant of 10°, and yi pint acetic acid of 
2°. The mixture is heated for ^ hour, and is then 
ready for us'e. 

(3) To imitate black ebony, first wet the wood with 
a solution of logwood and copperas, boiled together 
and laid on hot. For this purpose, 2 oz. logwood 
chips with 1)4. oz. copperas, to i qt. water, will be 
required. When the work has become dry, wet the 



36 THE UP -TO DATE 

surface again with a mixture of vinegar and steel 
filings. This mixture may be made by dissoK'ing 2 oz. 
steel filings in ^ pint vinegar. When the work has 
become dry again, sandpaper down until quite smooth. 
Then oil and fill in with powdered drop black mixed in 
the filler. Work to be ebonized should be smooth and 
free from holes, etc. The work may receive a light 
coat of quick-drying varnish, and then be rubbed with 
finely pulverized pumice and linseed oil until very 
smooth. 

(4) One gal. strong vinegar, 2 lb. extract of logwood, 
^ lb. green copperas, }^ lb. China blue, and 2 oz. 
nut-gall. Put these in an iron pot, and boil them over 
a slow fire till they are well dissolved. When cool, 
the mixture is ready for use. Add to the above % pint 
iron rust, which may be obtained by scraping rusty 
hoops, or preferably by steeping iron filings in a 
solution of acetic acid or strong vinegar. 

(5) Common ebony stain is obtained by preparing 
two baths; the first, applied warm, consists of a log- 
wood decoction, to every quart of which i dr. alum is 
added; the second is a solution of iron filings in 
vinegar. After the wood has dried from the first, the 
second is applied as often as is required. For the 
first-named bath, some substitute 16 oz. gall-nut, 4 
oz. logwood dust, and 2 oz. verdigris, boiled in a 
sufficient quantity of water. A peculiar method oC 
blackening walnut is in use in Niirnberg. On one of 
the Pegnitz Islands there is a large grinding-mill, turned 
by the stream, where iron tools are sharpened and 
polished. The wood is buried for a week or more in 
the slime formed by the wheels; when dug out it is 
jet black, and so permeated by silica as to be in effect 
petrified. Another way to ebonize flat surfaces of soft 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 37 

work is to rub very fine charcoal dust into the pores 
with oil. This works beautifully with basswood and 
American whitewood. A brown mahogany-like stain 
is best used on elm and walnut. Take a pint decoction 
of 2 oz. logwood in which ^ oz. barium chloride has 
been dissolved. This gives also, when diluted with 
soft water, a good oak stain to ash and chestnut. But 
the most beautiful and lasting of the browns is a con- 
centrated solution of potash permanganate (mineral 
chameleon). This is decomposed by the woody fiber, 
and forms hydrated manganese oxide, which is 
permanently fixed by the alkali. 

(6) For the fine black ebony stain, apple, pear, and 
hazel wood are the best woods to use; when stained 
black, they are most complete imitations of the 
natural ebony. For the stain take: gall apple, 14 oz.; 
rasped logwood, 3^ oz ; vitriol, 1 3/^ oz. ; verdigris, 
1}^ oz. For the second coating a mixture of iron 
filings (pure), 3^ oz., dissolved in strong wine vinegar; 
iy2 pint is warmed, and when cool the wood alread}^ 
blackened is coated 2 or 3 times with it, allowing it 
to dry after each coat. For articles which are to 
be thoroughly saturated, a mixture of i^ oz. sal- 
ammoniac, with a sufficient quantity of steel filings, is 
to be placed in a suitable vessel, strong vinegar poured 
upon it, and left for 14 days in a gently heated oven. 
A strong lye is now put into a suitable pot, to which 
is added coarsely bruised gall-apples and blue Brazil 
shavings, and exposed for the same time as the former 
to the gentle heat of an oven, which will then yield a 
good liquid. The woods are now laid in the first- 
named stain, boiled for a few hours, and left in it for 3 
days longer; they are then placed in the second stain 
and treated as in the first. If the articles are not then 



38 THE UP-TO-DATE 

thoroughly saturated, they may be once more placed 
in the first bath, and then in the second. The polish 
used for wood that is stained black should be "white" 
(colorless) polish, to which a very little finely ground 
Prussian blue should be added. 

(7) Wash with a concentrated aqueous solution of 
logwood extract several times; then with a solution 
of iron acetate of 14" B., which is repeated until a deep 
black is produced. 

(8) Beech, pear-tree, or nolly steeped in a strong 
liquor of logwood or galls. Let the wood dry, and 
wash over with solution of iron sulphate. Wash with 
clean water, and repeat if color is not dark enough. 
Polish either with black or common French polish. 

(9) Oak is immersed for 48 hours in a hot saturated 
solution of alum, and then brushed over several times 
with a logwood decoction prepared as follows: Boil i 
part best logwood with 10 of water, filter through linen, 
and evaporate at a gentle heat until the volume is 
reduced one-half. To every quart of this add 10 to 15 
drops of a saturated solution of indigo, completely 
neutral. After applying this dye to the wood, rub 
the latter with a saturated and filtered solution of 
verdigris in hot concentrated acetic acid, and repeat 
the operation until a black of the desired intensity is 
obtained. Oak thus stained is said to be a close as 
well as handsome imitation of ebony. 

(10) One lb. logwood chips, 3 pints water; boil to I 
pint; apply hot to wood; let dry; then give another 
coat; let dry slowly; sandpaper smooth; mix i gill 
vinegar with 3 tablespoonfuls iron or steel filings; let 
stand 5 hours, then brush on wood; let dry; then give 
another coat of the first. Thi^ sends the vinegar 
deeper into the wood and makes a denser black; after 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 39 

which paper smooth. Then polish with white French 
polish, as the white brings out the black purer than 
common French polish. The woods observed to take 
on the stain best are pear-tree, plane-tree, and straight- 
Teeded birch; mahogany does not stain nearly so well 
'as the former woods. 

(11) Get I lb. logwood chips and boil them down in 
enough water to make a good dark color; give the 
furniture 3 or 4 coats with a sponge; then put some 
rusty nails or old iron into a bottle with some vinegar, 
and when it begins to work give the furniture a coat 
of the vinegar. This, if you have well darkened it 
with the first, will give you a good black. Oil and 
polish in the usual way, rubbing down first with fine 
paper if required. A quicker way is to give the wood 
a coat of size and lampblack, and then use gas-black 
in your polish rubber 

(12) Make a strong decoction of logwood by boiling 
I lb. in I qt. water for about i hour; add thereto a 
piece of washing soda as large as a hazel-nut. Apply 
hot to the wood with a soft brush. Allow to dry, then 
paint over the wood with a solution of iron sulphate (i 
oz. to the pint of water). Allow this to dry, and 
repeat the logwood and iron sulphate for at least 3 
times, finishing off with logwood. Once more allow 
to dry thoroughly, then sandpaper off very lightly (so 
as not to remove the dye) with No. o paper. Now 
m^ake a very thin glue size, boil in it a few chips of 
logwood and a crystal or two of iron sulphate, just 
sufficient to make it inky black. Paint this lightly 
over the work, allow to dry once more, again sand- 
paper lightly, and finally either varnish with good 
hard white varnish, or polish with French polish and 
drop black, 



40 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Floors. — (i) Get the wood clean, have some Vandyke 
br()\vn and burnt sienna ground in water, mix it in 
strong size, put on with a whitewash or new paint 
brush as evenly as you can. When dry, give 2 coats 
of copal or oak varnish. 

(2) If the floor is a new one, have the border well 
washed. Polish with sandpaper, rubbing always with 
the grain of the wood. Varnish with good oak varnish, 
put coloring matter into the varnish to suit your taste, 
but umber is best; if the floor is old and blackened, 
paint it. 

(3) If old floors, you will not make much of staining 
anything but black. The floor is to be well washed 
(lime and soda is best — no soap), the dye painted on, 
and, when dry, sized over and varnished with elastic 
oak varnish. 

(4) Take _^ lb. logwood chips, boil them briskly for 
^ hour in about 5 qt. rain-water, and strain through 
muslin. To this liquor add 6 oz. annatto (in the form 
of cake — not .the roll); add also i lb. of yellow wax 
cut up in very small pieces. Place these over the 
fire, and let the wax melt, gently stirring it all the 
while. When melted, take the mixture off the fire; 
do not let it boil. Then with a paint brush lay it on 
the floor as hot as possible, brushing it always the way 
of the grain. Next day polish with a hard, flat brush 
made of hair, which may have a strap nailed to the 
back of it in which to insert the foot. The floor is 
afterwards kept bright with beeswax alone, a little of 
which is melted and put on the brush. Take care 
that the floor is thoroughly dry before commencing 
operations. 

(5) Melt some glue size in a bottle; next get a piece 
of rag, roll it into a ball so that it will fit the hand 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 41 

nicely, cover this with a bit of old calico to make a 
smooth face; dip this into the size, and rub in a bit of 
brown umber; then go ahead with your floors, working 
the stuff light or dark as required. Keep the motion 
with the grain of wood; when dry, stiffen with 
polishers' glaze. 

(6) Take Judson's dyes of the color required, mix 
according to the instructions given with each bottle, 
and apply with a piece of rag, previously trying it on 
a piece of wood to see if color would suit; rub with 
sandpaper to get off any roughness that may be raised 
with the damp, and varnish with fine, pale hard 
varnish, then slightly sandpaper and varnish again. 
Another method is to boil i lb. logwood in an old 
boiler, then apply with a piece of rag where the stain 
is required; when thoroughly dry, sandpaper as before, 
and well rub with beeswax to polish. This last proc- 
ess looks best when finished, but it requires a lot of 
elbow grease for a few months, and is extremely 
durable. To prevent the stain running where you do 
not want it, paste some stout paper. 

(7) As a general rule, i qt. of the staining liquid 
will be found sufficient to cover about 16 sq. yd. of 
flooring; but different kinds of woods absorb in 
different proportions, soft woods requiring more for 
the same space than hard woods. The colors of the 
stains are various, so that one may either choose 
ebony, walnut, mahogany, rosewood, satinwood, oak, 
medium oak, or maple, according to the paleaess or 
depth of color desired. Besides this, 4 lb. of size and 
2}4 pints of the best varnish are required to finish the 
16 yd. above mentioned. The necessary purchases 
are completed by a good-sized painters' brush and a 
smaller one. The work can then be commenced. If 



42 THE UP-TO-DATE 

the wood is uneven, it must be planed, and rubbed 
down to a smooth surface; whilst the cracks and spaces 
between the boards, if very wide, may be disposed of 
by a process called "slipping," by which pieces of 
wood are fitted in. The floor must next be carefully 
washed, and allowed to dry thoroughly. The actual 
staining may now be proceeded with. The liquid is 
poured out into a basin, and spread all over the floor 
with the aid of the large brush, the small one being 
used to do the corners and along the wainscoting, so 
that it may not be smeared. It is always best to begin 
staining at the farthest corner from the doorway, and 
work round so that One's exit may not be impeded. 
It is also a good plan to work with the window open, 
if there is no danger of much dust flying in, as the 
staining dries so much quicker. After the floor is quite 
covered, the stainer may rest for about an hour whilst 
the drying is going on, during which there is only one 
thing relative to the work in hand which need be 
attended to. This is the size, which should be put in 
a large basin with yo, pint of cold water to each pound, 
and then stood in a warm place to dissolve. Before 
recommencing work, also, the brushes must be washed, 
and this is no great trouble, as a little lukewarm water 
will take out all trace of the stain and clean them 
quite sufficiently. The sizing is then laid on in 
exactly the same manner as the staining, always being 
careful to pass the brush lengthwise down the boards. 
If the size froths or sticks unpleasantly, it must be a 
little more diluted with warm water, and sometimes, if 
the sediment from it is very thick, it is all the better 
for being strained through a coarse muslin. The 
sizing takes rather longer than the varnish to dry, 2 or 
more hours being necessar\% even on a warm, dry day. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 43 

Not until it is quite dry, however, can the last finish 
be put to the work with the varnish. For this it is 
always safest to get the very best, and to lay it on 
rather literally, though very evenly, and over every 
single inch, as the staining will soon rub off when not 
protected by it. The best way to ascertain whether 
it is varnished all over is to kneel down and look at 
the floor sideways, with one's eyes almost on a level 
with it. 

Green. — (i) Mordant the wood with red liquor at i" 
B. This is prepared by dissolving separately in water 
I part sugar of lead and 4 of alum free from iron; mix 
the solutions, and then add ^^ part of soda crystals, 
and let settle overnight. The clear liquor is decanted 
off from the sediment of lead sulphate, and is then 
diluted with water till it marks 1° B. The wood when 
mordanted is dyed green with berry liquor and indigo 
extract, the relative proportions of which determine 
the tone of the green. 

(2) Verdigris dissolved in 4 parts water. 

(3) 4.2 oz. copper, cut up finely, are gradually 
dissolved in 13 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis), and the 
articles to be stained are boiled in this solution until 
they have assumed a fine green color. 

Gray. — (i) Grays may be produced by boiling 17 oz. 
orchil paste for y^ hour in 7 pints water. The wood 
is first treated with this solution, and then, before it 
is dry, steeped in a beck of iron nitrate at 1° B. An 
excess of iron gives a yellowish tone; otherwise a blue 
gray is produced, which may be completely converted 
into blue by means of a little potash. 

(2) One part silver nitrate dissolved ^ in 50 of 
distilled water; wash over twice; then with hydro- 
chloric acid, and afterwards with water of ammonia. 



44 THE Ur- TO -DATE 

The wood is allowed to dry in the dark, and then 
finished in oil and polished. 

Mahogany. — (i) Boil Yz lb. madder and 2 oz. log- 
wood chips in I gal. water, and brush well over while 
hot. When dry, go over with pearlash solution, 2 dr. 
to the quart. By using it strong or weak, the color 
can be varied at pleasure. 

(2) Soak I lb. stick wirnish in 2 qt. water until all 
the color is dissolved out; strain off the water, and 
add to the residue 25 dr. powdered madder. Set the 
mixture over the fire until it is reduced to ^ of its 
original \'olume. Then mix together 25 dr. cochineal, 
25 dr. kermes berries, i pint spirits of wine, and }4 oz 
pearlash, out of which the color has been washed by 
soaking in a gill of soft water. Add this mixture to 
the decoction of madder and varnish, stirring well 
together, and adding so much aqua fortis as will bring 
the red to the desired shade. 

(3) Dark Mahogany. — Introduce into a bottle 15 gr. 
alkanet root, 30 gr. aloes, 30 gr. powdered dragons' 
blood, and 500 gr. 95 per cent alcohol, closing the 
mouth of the bottle with a piece of bladder, keeping 
it in a warm place for 3 or 4 days, with occasional 
shaking, then filtering the liquid. The wood is first 
mordanted with nitric acid, and when dry washed with 
the stain once or oftener, according to the desired 
shade; then, the wood being dried, it is oiled and 
polished. 

(4) Light Mahogany. — Same as dark mahogany, but 
the stain being only applied once. The veins of true 
mahogany may be imitated by the use of iron acetate 
skillfully applied. 

(5) The following process is recommended in 
"Wiederhold's Trade Circular:" — The coarse wood is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 45 

first coated with a colored size, which is prepared by 
thoroughly mixing up, in a warm solution, I part 
commercial glue in 6 of water, a sufficient quantity of 
the commercial mahogany brown, which is in reality 
an iron oxide, and in color stands between so-called 
Indian red and iron oxide. This is best effected by 
adding in excess a sufficient quantity of the dry color 
with the warm solution of glue, and thoroughly 
mixing the mass by means of a brush until a uniform 
paste is obtained, in which no more dry red particles 
are seen. A trial coat is then laid upon a piece of 
wood. If it is desired to give a light mahogany color 
to the object, it is only necessary to add less, and, for a 
darker color, more, of the brown body-color. When 
the coat is dry, it may be tested, by rubbing with the 
fingers, whether the color easily separates or not. In 
the former case, more glue must be added until the dry 
trial coat no longer perceptibly rubs off with the 
hands. Having ascertained in this way the right 
condition of the size color with respect to tint and 
strength, it is then warmed slightly, and worked 
through a hair sieve by means of a brush. After this, 
it is rubbed upon the wood surface with the brush, 
which has been carefully washed. It is not necessary 
to keep the color warm during the painting. Should 
it become thick by gelatinizing, it may be laid on the 
wood with the brush, and dries more rapidly than 
when the color is t.oo thin. If the wood is porous and 
absorbs much color, a second coat may be laid on the 
first when dry, which will be sufficient in all cases. 
On drying, the size color appears dull and unsightly, 
but the following coat changes immediately the 
appearance of the surface. This coat is spirit varnish. 
For its production 3 parts spirits of wine of 90° are 



46 THE UP-TO-DATE 

added in excess to i part of red acaroid resin in one 
vessel, and in another lo parts shellac with 40 of 
spirits of wine of So^c. By repeated agitation for 3 or 
4 days, the spirit dissolves the resin completely. The 
shellac solution is then poured carefully from the 
sediment, or, better still, filtered through a fine cloth, 
when it may be observed that a slight milky turbidity 
is no detriment to its use. The resin solution is best 
filtered into the shellac solution by pouring through a 
funnel loosely packed with wadding. When filtered, 
the solutions of both resins are mixed by agitating the 
vessel and letting the varnish stand a few days. The 
acaroid resin colors the shellac, and imparts to it at 
the same time the degree of suppleness usually 
obtained by the addition of Venetian turpentine or 
linseed oil. If the ^•arnish is to be employed as a coat, 
the upper layers are poured off at once from the 
vessel. One or two coats suffice, as a rule, to give the 
object an exceedingly pleasing effect. The coats dry 
very quickly, and care must be taken not to apply the 
second coat until the first is completely dry. 

(6) 7.5 oz. madder, 8.75 oz. rasped yellow wood, are 
boiled for i hour in 5.5 lb. water, and the boiling 
liquor is applied to the articles until the desired color 
has been produced. 

(7) 1.05 oz. powdered turmeric, 1.05 oz. powdered 
dragons' blood, are digested in 8.75 oz. of 80 per cent 
strong alcohol, and when the latter seems to be thor- 
oughly colored it is filtered through a cloth. The fil- 
trate is heated and applied warm to the article. 

(8) 17.5 oz. madder, 8.75 oz. ground logwood, are 
boiled for i hour in 5.5 lb. water. This is filtered 
while still warm, and the warm liquor is applied to 
the wood. When this has become drv, and it is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 47 

desired to produce a darker mahogany color, a solu- 
tion of 0.525 oz. potash carbonate in 4.4 lb. water is 
applied to the wood. This solution is prepared cold, 
and filtered through blotting-paper. 

(9) 0.35 oz. aniline is dissolved in 8.75 oz. spirits 
of wine 90 per cent strong. Then another solution of 
0.35 oz. aniline yellow in 17.5 oz. spirits of wine 90 
per cent strong is made, and this is added to the aniline 
solution until the required reddish-yellow color is 
obtained. By adding a little of a solution of aniline 
brown (0.35 oz. aniline brown in 10.5 oz. spirits of wine 
90 per cent strong), the color is still more completely 
harmonized, and a tint very closely resembling 
mahogany can be given to elm and cherry wood with 
this mixture. 

(10) 0.7 oz. logwood is boiled in 3.5 oz. water down 
to about Y'i. This is then filtered, and 0.12 oz. baryta 
chloride is dissolved in it. 

Oak. — (i) Mix powdered ocher, Venetian red, and 
umber, in size, in proportions to suit; or a richer stain 
may be made with raw sienna, burnt sienna, and 
Vandyke. A light yellow stain of raw sienna alone 
is very effective. 

(2) Darkening Oak. — Lay on liquid ammonia with a 
rag or brush. The color deepens immediately, and 
does not fade; this being an artificial production of 
the process which is induced naturally by age. Potash 
bichromate, dissolved in cold water and applied in a 
like manner, will produce a very similar result. 

(3) In Germany, the cabinetmakers use very strong 
coffee for darkening oak. To make it very dark: 
iron filings with a little sulphuric acid and water, put 
on with a sponge, and allowed to dry between each 
application until the right hue is reached. 



48 THE UP-TO-DATE 

(4) Whitewash with fresh lime, aiul wjien dry brush 
off the lime with a hard brush, and dress well with 
linseed oil. It shotdd l)e done after the wood has 
been worked, and it wmII make not only the wood, but 
the carving or moulding, look old also. 

(5) Use a strong solution of common washing-soda, 
say one or two coats, until the proper color is obtained. 
Or you may try potash carbonate. Paper and finish 
off with linseed oil. 

(6) A decoction of green walnut-shells will bring 
new oak to any shade, or nearly black. 

(7) ^ good method of producing the peculiar olive 
brown of old oak is by fumigation with liquid 
ammonia; the method has many advantages beyond 
the expense of making a case or room airtight and 
the price of the ammonia. It does not raise the grain, 
the work keeping as smooth as at first. Any tint, or 
rather, depth of the color can be given with certainty; 
and the darker shade of color will be found to have 
penetrated to the depth of a veneer, and much farther 
where the end grain is exposed, thus doing away with 
the chance of an accidental knock showing the white 
wood. The coloring is very even and pure, not 
destroying the transparency of the wood. It is 
advisable to make the furniture from one kind of stuff, 
not to mix white oak with red, and so on. They both 
take the color well, but there is a kind of American 
live oak that does not answer well. In all cases care 
must be taken to have no glue or grease on the work, 
which would cause white spots to be left. The deal 
portions of the w^c^rk are not affected in the least, 
neither does it affect the sap of oak. The best kind 
of polish for furniture treated in this manner is wax 
polish, or the kind known as egg-shell polish. The 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 49 

process of fumigation is very simple. Get a large 
packing case, or better still, make a room in a corner 
of the polishing shop about g ft. long, 6 ft. high, and 
3 ft. 6 in. wide; pass paper over the joints; let the 
door close on to a strip of india-rubber tubing; put a 
pane of glass in the side of box or house to enable you 
to examine the progress of coloring. In putting in 
your work see that it does not touch anything to 
hinder the free course of the fumes. Put 2 or 3 
dishes on the floor to hold the ammonia; about y^ pint 
is sufficient for a case this size. The ammonia differs 
'in purity, some leaving more residue than others. 
Small articles can be done by simply covering them 
with a cloth, having a little spirits in a pot underneath. 
A good useful color can be given by leaving the 
things exposed to the fumes overnight. The color 
lightens on being polished, owing to the transparency 
thus given to the wood. 

Purple. — (i) Take i lb. logwood chips, ^ gal. 
water, 4 oz. pearlash, 2 oz. powdered indigo. Boil 
the logwood in the water till the full strength is 
obtained, then add the pearlash and indigo, and when 
the ingredients are dissolved the mixture is ready for 
use, either warm or cold. This gives a beautiful 
purple. 

(2) To stain wood a rich purple or chocolate color, 
boil % lb. madder and y^ lb. fustic in i gal. water, and 
when boiling brush over the work until stained. If 
the surface of the work should be perfectly smooth,^ 
brush over the work with a weak solution of nitric acid; 
then finish with the following: put 4}^ oz. dragons' 
blood and I oz. soda, both well bruised, into 3 pints 
spirits of wine. Let it stand in a warm place, shake 
frequently, strain and lay on with a soft brush, 



50 THE UP-TO-DATE 

repeating until a proper color is gained. Polish with 
linseed oil or varnish. 

(3) 2.2 lb. rasped logwood, 5.5 lb. rasped Lima red 
dyewood are boiled for i hour in 5.5 lb. water. It is 
then filtered through a cloth and. applied to the article 
to be stained until the desired color has been obtained. 
In the meanwhile a solution of 0.175 oz. potash 
carbonate in 17.5 oz. water has been prepared, and a 
thin coat of this is applied to the article stained red. 
But strict attention must be paid not to apply too thick 
a coat of this sc^lution, or else a dark blue color would 
be the result. 

Red. — (i) The wood is plunged first in a solution of 
I oz. of curd soap in 35 fl. oz. water, or else is rubbed 
with the solution; then magenta is applied in a state 
of sufficient dilution to bring out the tone required. 
All the aniline colors behave very well on wood. 

(2) For a red stain, a decoction of }i^ lb. logwood 
and ^2 oz. potash in I lb. water is used as the bath, 
being fixed by a w^ash of alum water. For scarlet, use 
I oz. cochineal, 6 oz. powdered argol, 4 oz. cream tar- 
tar, in 12 oz. tin chloride (scarlet spirits). 

(3) Take i qt. alcohol, 3 oz. Brazil-wood, ]/2 oz. 
dragons' blood, % oz. cochineal, I oz. saffron. Steep 
to full strength and strain. It is a beautiful crimson 
stain for violins, work boxes, and fancy articles. 

(4) Beside the aniline colors, which are, however, 
much affected by sunlight, cochineal gives a very 
good scarlet red upon wood. Boil 2 oz. cochineal, 
previously reduced to a fine powder, in 35 oz. of water 
for 3 hours, and apply it to the wood. When dry, give 
it a coating of dilute tin chloride to which is added a 
little tartaric acid — i oz. tin chloride and ]/2 oz. 
tartaric acid in 35 fl. oz. water. If, instead of water, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 51 

the cochineal is boiled in a decoction of bark (2 oz. 
bark to 35 oz. water), and the tin chloride is used as 
above, an intense scarlet and all shades of orange may 
be produced according to the proportions. 

(5) Take i gal. alcohol, i}^ lb. camwood, ^ lb. red 
Sanders, i lb. logwood extract, 2 oz. aqua fortis. 
When dissolved, it is ready for use. It should be 
applied in 3 coats over the whole surface. When dry, 
rub down to a smooth surface, using for the purpose 
a very fine paper. The graining is done with iron 
rust, and the shading with asphaltum thinned with 
spirits of turpentine. When the shading is dry, apply 
a thin coat of shellac; and when that is dry, rub down 
with fine paper. The work is then ready for varnish- 
ing — a fine rose tint. 

(6) Monnier recommends steeping the wood for 
several hours in a bath of 1200 gr. potassium iodide to 
the quart of water, and then immersing it in a bath of 
375 S^' corrosive sublimate, when it will assume a 
beautiful rose-red color by chemical precipitation. It 
should subsequently be covered with a glossy varnish. 
The baths will not need renewal for a long time. 

(7) 2.2 lb. finely powdered Lima red dyewood and 

2.1 oz. potash carbonate are put in a glass bottle and 
digested in 5.5 lb. water for 8 days in a warm place; 
the bottle should be frequently shaken. It is then 
filtered through a cloth; the fluid is heated, and 
applied to the article to be stained until the latter 
acquires a beautiful color. If it is desired to brighten 
the color, a solution of 2.1 oz. alum, free from iron, in 

2.2 lb', water is applied to the article while it is still 
wet. The last solution can be prepared by heat; when 
it has been accomplished, it is filtered. As soon as 
the stains have become dry, they should be rubbed 



52 THK UP-TO-DATE 

with a rag moistened with linseed oil, after which the 
varnish may be applied. 

Satinwood. — Take i qt. alcohol, 3 oz. ground 
turmeric, 13^ oz. powdered gamboge. When steeped 
to its full strength, strain through fine muslin. It is 
then ready for use. Apply with a piece of fine sponge, 
giving the work 2 coats. When dry, sandpaper down 
very fine. It is then ready for polish or varnish, and 
is a good imitation oT satinwood. 

Violet. — The wood is treated in a bath made up with 
4^ oz. olive oil, the same weight of soda-ash, and 
2^ pints boiling water, and it is then dyed with 
magenta to which a corresponding quantity of tin 
crystals has been added. 

Walnut. — Deal and other common woods are stained 
to imitate polished walnut in various ways, (i) One 
method is, after careful rubbing with glass-paper, to go 
over the surface with a preparation of Cassel brown 
boiled in a l\'e of soft-soap and soda. After drying, 
the surface is rubbed over with pumice and oil, and 
polished with shellac. The Cassel brown will not take 
equally well on all kinds of wood, so that if not laid 
on thick it sometimes comes off under the subsequent 
pumicing; whilst on the other hand this same thickness 
conceals, more or less, the grain on the wood beneath, 
giving it the appearance of having been painted. 

(2) Others use instead a decoction of green walnut- 
shells, dried and boiled in the same lye, or in soft 
water to which soda has been added. The decoction 
of walnut-shells is apt to come off on the clothes as a 
yellowish, adhesive substance. 

(3) Others, again, employ catechu and potash 
chromate in equal parts, boiled separately and after- 
wards mixed. The mixture of catechu and potash 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 53 

chromate leaves a reddish-brown deposit on the surface 
of the wood, very unlike real walnut. 

(4) The following is~ said to be a very superior 
method for staining any kind of wood in imitation of 
walnut, while it is also cheap and simple in its manip- 
ulation. The wood, previously thoroughly dried 
and warmed, is coated once or twice with a stain com- 
posed of I oz. extract of walnut peel dissolved in 6 oz. 
soft water by heating it to boiling, and stirring. The 
wood thus treated, when half dry, is brushed with a 
solution of I oz. potash bichromate in 5 oz. boiling 
water, and is then allowed to dry thoroughly, and is 
to be rubbed and polished as usual. Red beech and 
alder, under this treatment, assume a most deceptive 
resemblance to American walnut. The color is fixed 
in the wood to a depth of one or two lines. 

(5) Mix dragons' blood and lampblack in methylated 
spirits till you get the color required, and rub it well 
into the grain of the wood. 

(6) Light Walnut. — Dissolve i part potassium 
permanganate in 30 of pure water, and apply twice in 
succession; after an interval of 5 minutes, wash with 
clean water, and when dry, oil and polish. 

(7) Dark Walnut. — Same as for light walnut, but 
after the washing with water the dark veins are made 
more prominent with a solution of iron acetate. 

(8) In the winter season get some privet berries 
(black), which grow in most gardens, and put 2 oz. in 
^ pint solution of liquid ammonia. This, applied to 
pine, varnished or polished, cannot be detected from 
real walnut itself. 

(9) Take i gal. very thin sized shellac; add i lb. dry 
burnt umber, i lb. dry burnt sienna, and ^ lb. 
lampblack. Put these articles into a jug and shake 



54 THE UP-TO-DATE 

frccjucntl)' until they are mixed. Apply one coat with 
a brush. When the work is dry, rub down with fine 
paper, and apply one coat of shellac or cheap xarnish. 
It will then be a good imitation of solid walnut, and 
will be adapted for the back boards of mirror-frames, 
for the back and inside of casework, and for similar 
work. 

(lo) Take i gal. strong vinegar, i lb. dry burnt 
umber, ^ lb. fine rose pink, ^4 lb. dry burnt Vandyke 
brown. Put into a jug and mix well; let the mixture 
stand one day, and it will then be ready for use. 
Apply this stain to the sap with a piece of fine sponge; 
it will dry in ^ hour. The whole piece is then ready 
for the filling process. When the work is completed, 
the stained part cannot be detected even by those who 
have performed the job. By means of this recipe, 
wood of poor quality and mostly of sap can be used 
with good effect. 

(ii) Darkening Walnut. — Slaked lime, i to 4 of 
water, will do for some kinds of walnut; a weak solution 
of iron sulphate for others; and yet again for other kinds 
a weak solution of pearl ash. Try each on the wood, 
and choose the one you like best. 

(12) To give to walnut a dark color resembling 
rosewood, Hirschberg uses a solution of 0. 17 oz. potash 
bichromate in 1.05 oz. water. This solution is applied 
to the walnut with a sponge, and the wood is then 
pumiced and polished. 

(13) By a simple staining, furniture of pine or birch 
wood can be easily made to appear as if it had been 
veneered with walnut \'eneer. For this a solution of 
3.15 oz. potash manganate, and 3.15 oz. manganese 
sulphate in 5.25 qt. hot water, is made. This solution 
is applied to the wood with a brush, and must be 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 55 

repeated several times. The potash manganate Is 
decomposed when it comes in contact with the woody 
fiber, and thus a beautiful and very durable walnut 
color is obtained. If small wooden articles are to be 
stained in this manner, a very diluted bath is prepared; 
the articles are dipped into it, and kept there i to 9 
minutes, according as the color is desired lighter or 
darker. 

Yellow. — (i) Mordant with red liquor, and dye with 
bark liquor and turmeric. 

(2) Turmeric dissolved in wood naphtha. 

(3) Aqua regia (nitro-muriatic acid), diluted in 3 
parts water, is a much-used though rather destructive 
yellow stain. 

(4) N'tric acid gives a fine permanent yellow, which 
is converted into dark brown by subsequent application 
of tinctu^'e of iodine. 

(5) Wash over with a hot concentrated solution of 
picric acid, and when dry, polish the wood. 

(6) Orange-Yellow Tone to Oak Wood. — Accord- 
ing to Niedling, a beautiful orange-yellow tone, much 
admired in a chest at the Vienna Exhibition, may be 
imparted to oak wood by rubbing it in a warm room 
with a certain mixture until it acquires a dull polish, 
and then coating it after an hour with thin polish, and 
repeating the coating of polish to improve the depth 
and brilliancy of the tone. The ingredients for the 
rubbing mixture are about 3 oz. tallow, ^ oz. wax, and 
I pint oil of turpentine, mixed by heating together and 
stirring. 

(7) 0.5 oz. nitric acid (aqua fortis) is compounded 
with 1.57 oz. rain-water, and the article to be stained is 
brushed over with this. Undiluted nitric acid gives a 
brownish-yellow color. 



56 THE UP-TO-DATE 

(8) 2. 1 oz. finely powdered turmeric are digested for 
several days in 17.5 oz. alcohol 80 per cent strong, and 
then strained through a cloth. This solution is applied 
to the articles to be stained. When they have become 
entirely dr\', the}' are burnished and varnished. 

(9) 1.57 oz. potash carbonate are dissolved in 4.2 oz. 
rain-water. This solution is poured over 0.52 oz. 
annotto, and this mixture is allowed to stand for 3 days 
in a warm place, being frequently shaken in the 
meanwhile. It is then filtered, and 0.175 oz. spirit of 
sal-ammoniac is added to it. The stain is now ready, 
and the articles to be stained will acquire a very 
beautiful bright yellow color by placing them in it. 

(10) Bright Golden Yellow. ^0.52 oz. finely 
pow^dered madder is digested for 12 hours with 2.1 oz. 
diluted sulphuric acid, and then filtered through a 
cloth. The articles to be stained are allowed to 
remain in this fluid 3 to 4 days, when they will be 
stained through. 

Most of the foregoing is taken from English, French, 
and German sources, but the following are methods 
usually adopted in American practice; but it is just as 
well that the finisher should be conversant, to some 
extent, with the practice of other nationalities as well 
as that of his own. 

Stains may be classified as follows: Those made with 
oil and color, those made with spirits and color, those 
made w^ith water and coloring matter other than 
anilines, and those made with water and anilines. 
Generally, spirit stains are made with anilines. 

Water stains are those in w'hich the coloring matter 
is mixed with water. A good mahogany water stain 
is made as follows: Fustic chips, 4 oz. ; madder root, 
Yz lb.; water about 4 qt. This should boil for several 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 57 

hours and should be applied boiling hot, after being 
well strained. 

For walnut: Vandyke brown, i lb.; strong lye, ^ 
pt.; water, 3 qt. This should boil down to about three 
pints, and should be applied to the wood when cold 
with a sponge or pad. 

A good cherry stain can be made by mixing a pound 
of Spanish annotto, an ounce of strong lye, and water. 
Boil forty minutes. If not deep enough in color, boil 
more, and add a little gamboge to darken it. 

There is v^ery little difference between cherry and 
■ mahogany stains; the latter are somewhat darker, b;it 
may be reduced to answer. 

Aniline stains are easily made, and are usually very 
even and free from cloudy spots when properly laid 
on. All or any of anilines will dissolve in water, oil, 
or alcohol, but will dissolve much quicker in warm 
liquid than in cold. Time will therefore be saved by 
having the medium hot. 

One example of making a water stain from anilines 
will answer for the whole group. If for mahogany, 
use Bismarck brown, I oz. ; add 3 qt. water boiling hot; 
stir until the brown is all dissolved. When cool it is 
ready to apply. 

Many excellent stains for pine may be obtained by 
using the ordinary graining colors, Vandyke brown, 
raw and burnt sienna, ultramarine blue, etc., applied 
with a brush, without previous preparation, and then 
wiped off with a cloth — a method that brings out 
clearly the grain or marks of the wood, which in pitch 
pine, now being extensively used for fittings, are often 
extremely beautiful. A better method for general 
work, French polish being ordinarily too expensive, 
is, where dark oak or mahogany stains are not wanted, 



58 THE UP-TO-DATE 

light varnishes, of which two coats are to be applied. 
The glue size with which the work is first coated, in 
order to fill up the pores of the wood, should not be 
too thick, as in that case it is liable to crack. 

Logwood, lime, brown soft soap, dyed oil, sulphate 
of iron, nitrate of silver exposed to the sun's rays, 
carbonate of soda, bichromate and permanganate of 
potash, and other alkaline preparations, are used for 
darkening the wood; the last three are specially 
recommended. The solution is applied by dissolving 
one ounce of the alkali in two gills of boiling water, 
diluted to the required tone. The surface is saturated 
with a sponge or flannel, and immediately dried with 
-oft rags. The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil 
tinged with rose madder ma}' be applied to hardwoods 
like birch, and a red oil is prepared from soaked 
alkanet root in linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine 
can be brought out by two or three coats of japan, 
much diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled 
and rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of 
age, lime water used before oiling is a good plan. 
In staining wood, the best and most transparent effect 
is obtained by repeated light coats of the same. For 
oak stain a strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; 
for mahogany, dilute nitric acid. A primary coat or a 
coat of wood fillers is advantageous. For mahogany 
stains, the following are given: two ounces of dragons' 
blood dissolved in one quart of rectified spirits of 
wine, well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt 
sienna to give the required tone; for darker stains boil 
half-pound of madder and two ounces of logwood 
chips in one gallon of water, and brush the decoction 
while hot over the wood; when dry, paint with a 
solution of two ounces of potash in one quart of water* 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 59 

A solution of permanganate of potash forms a rapid 
and excellent brown stain. 

Oak or ash may be stained brown by using linseed 
oil and benzine half and half, and burnt umber or 
Vandyke brown incorporated with this. Maple can be 
stained green-gray by using copperas in water; oak 
will also be changed to a dark green blue through the 
same agency, the effect on ash being various shades of 
olive green. Ammonia applied to oak produces the 
bronze olive tint now used so much by architects. 

Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction of 
logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between 
each application. Then wash it with a solution of 
acetate of iron, which is made by dissolving iron filings 
in vinegar. This stain is very black, and penetrates to 
a considerable depth into the wood, so that ordinary 
scratching or chipping does not show the original color. 

A wash of one part of nitric acid in ten parts of water 
will, if well done, impart a stain resembling mahogany 
to pine wood which does not contain much resin. When 
the wood is thoroughly dry, shellac varnish will impart 
a fine finish to the surface. A glaze of carmine or lake 
will produce a rosewood finish. A turpentine extract of 
alkanet root produces a beautiful stain which admits of 
French polishing. Asphaltum, thinned with turpentine, 
makes an excellent mahogany color on new wood^ 

When describing the treatment of different kinds of 
wood, which will follow, I will have more to say 
regarding the method of staining. 

VARNISHING AND POLISHING 

French polishing was at one time the oniy method 
of polishing permitted to be employed on work of the 
first class, because of its permanency and uniform 



6o THE UP-TO-DATE 

appearance, and the man wh(3 understood the process, 
and could mix tlie materials used, could always demand 
good pay and steady employment. Now, however, 
there are a number of methods and varnishes that are 
almost as good as the method and materials used in 
Erench polishing, and which can be applied at one- 
eighth the cost, and which when done look just about as 
well, though perhaps the^' will not be permanent. So, 
while Erench polishing still survives to some extent, 
and is likely to be practiced for many years to come, a 
description of the method and materials is quite 
ntxessary in a book of this kind; therefore no excuse 
is necessary to account for its appearance in these 
pages. 

Varnishing, on which depends to a certain extent the 
beauty of the work, to be of a durable character should 
be done in a temperature of 65^ E. or more, from the 
beginning of the work to the finishing of the same, day 
and night included. A higher temperature, if not over 
125° E., will not harm fine varnishes; in fact, will turn 
out nicer work than in a lower temperature, and will 
enable a manufacturer to turn out work in amuch shorter 
time. In a temperature of but 65° to 75° E. from four 
to six days between coatings is advisable, as this will 
give good and unfailing results. In 125° F. the same 
good results can be obtained in one-half the time. Var- 
nishing departments, outside the filling and rubbing 
rooms, should be kept absolutely clean. The filling 
and rubbing rooms should be kept as clean as pos- 
sible. 

After cabinet-work has received one-half the varnish 
coatings and the varnish is perfectly dry, rub the surface 
with pumice-stone and water — use a piece of felt — to 
a smooth, even surface. Allow the work to stand 24 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 6i 

hours, and then begin the application of the last half 
of varnish coatings, giving the same time between 
coatings. After all the coatings are perfectly dry, go 
through the same rubbing process. A perfect, smooth 
surface for polishing will be the resuh. Let the work 
stand for 24 hours after this rubbing, then start polish- 
ing by moistening a fine piece of cloth with water, 
dipped in powdered rotten stone, thus moistening the 
same also, and begin to rub the surface of the work 
with a steady hand and evenly, in order to remove 
with this fine rotten stone the fine scratches, if any, 
which are generally caused by the rubbing of the 
pumice-stone. This accomplished, continue the rub- 
bing with the palm of the hand instead of the cloth, 
using moist rotten stone, and rub the work until the 
fine polish required is obtained. The rotten stone then 
generally falls off the hand and you work in a dry dust. 
Wash the surface clean with water, using a fine sponge 
and chamois. Allow the polished work to stand 24 
hours, then oil the same off with a light oil and a very 
soft rag or cotton bat. Take another fine rag or cotton 
bat and remove all the oil by rubbing or wiping the 
same gently, but absolutely clean, off the polished 
surface. To be sure this is accomplished, moisten the 
cloth or cotton bat with alcohol. The polish, if every- 
thing is done correctly, will then be finished. 

Care should be taken that too much varnish is not 
put on the work. For good finishing only a minimum 
of material should be used if the grain of the wood is 
wished to be seen, for the less varnish used, providing 
a good polish is obtained, will bring out the details of 
the wood better than a dozen coats would. If one coat 
of varnish is not enough, two will be, and it is not good 
practice to employ more, nor is it good workmanship.- 



62 TME UP-TO-DATE 

A room that is dark or clamp will spoil the varnish, 
and a room that is excessi\ely warm will keep the 
varnish soft. Barrels of varnish should not be stored 
in a very warm room, as the heat will open the joints 
in the barrels, and the varnish, which will be quite thin 
owing to the heat, will leak out. In summer, varnish 
should be stored in a basement where it is cool. 

Turning white is caused by the action of water or 
dampness. The better the grade of varnish and the 
more elastic it is, the less liable it is to be affected by 
moisture. In applying two coats of varnish, neither 
should be heavy, more especially the first coat. If it 
is, it will not generally get thoroughly dry at the 
bottom before the second one is applied, and the result 
will be disastrous, as it will cause the last coat to 
crack, wrinkle, or sag, as it is called. Another bad 
result of not giving varnish time to dry will be noticed 
by the last coat deadening or sinking away. This is 
caused by the undercoat not having been allowed 
sufficient time to dry, resulting in the finishing coat 
becoming absorbed while in the course of hardening. 

The varnisher must be careful that there is no oil on 
the surface to be varnished, as it will cause pitting, or 
little hollows in the varnish. When varnish is so thick 
it does not spread well, it may be thinned by adding a 
little turpentine, but care must be taken that it is 
thoroughly incorporated in the varnish, as, if it is not, 
this will also cause pitting. A long-haired, pliant 
brush is best with which to apply varnish. It should 
be spread with long, steady strokes, drawn in a per- 
fectly straight line lengthwise the grain of the wood. 
Oil japan or liquid dryer should never be added to 
good varnish. Each coat of varnish should be given 
three or four days to harden before another coat is 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



63 



added or before the last coat is rubbed, if a rubbed 
surface is required. 

One thing should always be considered before 
varnishing begins, and that is, that a good coat of 
colorless shellac should be laid on the 
work just as soon as the filler is dry 
and properly rubbed down. This will 
hermetically seal up all the pores and 
prevent the varnish from sinking or 
showing hollow spots on the work. 

I show the style of brush which is 
generally used for applying shellac, in 
Fig. 107; it is taken from a dealer's 
catalogue, and is oval in section and 
metal-bound. 

An excellent shellac varnish is made 
by dissolving 3^ lb. of orange shellac 
in I gal. of grain or wood alcohol. Let 
stand in a warm place until the shellac 
is thoroughly dissolved. If shaken 
once in a while, the shellac will dis- 
solve quicker. 

For making white shellac varnish, 
take 3^ lb. of white shellac and mix 
with alcohol, grain or wood, the same 
as before. These proportions are offered 
only as a sort of guide, but they may 
be varied a little as experience will 
show. 

All varnish should be laid on with 
the grain if possible, or there will likely be sagging 
along the brush marks. 

Where varnish is flowed the operator should not be 
"stingy" with his material or his work will not be 



Fig. 107 



64 



THE U1^-T(3-DATE 



good. There is a tendency always with the beginner 
to "hiy off" his \'arnish too thin, or to "skin" it, as it 
is termed. It is always better to err on the side of 
using too much, than too little varnish, if good work is 
desired. Too much varnish, however, should be 
avoided, as the work will be apt to crack and become 
disfigured in time. The brushes shown 
in Figs. io8 and 109 are among the best 
for flowing purposes. 

Generally, unless on the very hard- 
est of woods, tvvo coats of varnish are 
necessary before the process of rubbing 
can be commenced, as a good surface 
cannot be obtained unless there is a 
L,^ood ground to work on. 

A few hints as to "rubbing" may not 
be out of place. First, see that the 
varnish is dry and hard. If an impres- 
sion can be made on it with a finger 
nail, it is too soft to rub; let it stand 
awhile. 

Never rub across the grain if it can 
be avoided. 

Always rub with the grain, lightening 
the stroke at the ends. 

Rub lightly at first and avoid making 
bare spots. 

Use fine pumice-stone at first, and 
all the time, until you get accustomed to the work. 
Use a pad of felt about 33^x4^^ inches for a rubber. 
Rub with either water or with rubbing oil — the latter 
preferred — or use linseed oil. 

Sprinkle the pumice-stone powder on the work, 
di[) the rubber in the oil, then rub lightly. 




Fig. 108 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



65 



Clean off the work with damp, clean ??awdust and a 
brush, or with soft cotton wadding. 

For mouldings, make reverse 
shapes, cover with felt, and pro- 
ceed as with the flat surfaces. 

After rubbing, the work is ready 
for polishing. This is done by 
making a mixture of half sweet 
oil and half alcohol. Then make 
a large wad of nice clean cotton 
and rub the work with a circular 
motion until the proper polish is 
attained. This requires some 
practice, but is easily acquired. 

Another and a better method 
is to put on an extra coat of flow- 
ing varnish, then rub down with 
fine pumice-stone and clean care- 
fully. After this, rub down with a 
lump of faced-up pumice, or with 
chamois leather and powdered rot- 
ten stone. Let the rotten stone 
become dry on the surface, then 
wipe off with the palm of the 
hand, which rubs up the work, 
with a rotary motion. A piece of 
fine linen or silk should be handy, 
on which the hand should be 
cleaned from time to time. 

If a dead finish is required, do 
not polish after rubbing over with powdered pumice- 
stone and oil. 

Of course, the operator must always bear in mind, 
during the several operations, that care and cleanliness 




Fig. 1C9 



66 TlIK UP-rO- DATE 

are two necessary factors, and without them, there 
can be no such thing as satisfactory results. A 
slovenly workman should never attempt to polish, for 
no good can come from it. In all my experience, 
which covers many years, I have never known of a 
careless or slovenly man making good work in this 
particular department. 

French Polishing. — Much has been said and written 
on this subject, and many comparisons have been made 
between this and other methods of polishing, but the 
writer, from his architectural experience and general 
observation, does not hesitate for a moment in saying 
that "French polished" work is much superior to any 
or all other polished work, so far as durability and 
effect is concerned. True, other methods are — many 
of them — much more economical and easier acquired, 
but they do not have the staying powers that the good 
old-fashioned French polishing has. 

Although, as before stated, much has been written 
on the subject, there is a certain sameness in the 
descriptions, and I confess I do not see how it could 
be otherwise, as the subject is one that can have onlv 
one side to it; hence the sameness of description. 

I will not attempt to write a description, as it would 
be no improvement on former ones; so I offer the 
following, which is taken from an English source, 
that has been Americanized to some extent. 

In French polishing, the wood has to be prepared 
and various minor details attended to before this can 
be done. For example, the pores of open-grained 
wood must be stopped or, as the process is generally 
called, filled, to get a smooth surface and to prevent 
excessive absorption of the liquid polish. Then the 
appearance of some woods is improved and enriched 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 67 

by oiling them before applying the polish. This 
oiling, to a certain extent, darkens and mellows them, 
and brings up the figure. 

The temperature and atmosphere of the place in 
which French polishing is done are of considerable 
importance. Work cannot be done properly in a cold 
or damp room, as then the polish will get chilled, and, 
as it sets on the wood,- becomes opaque and cloudy. 
To avoid this the polisher should work in a warm 
room. The temperature for a living room, about 70°, 
is about that suited for polishing. In warm summer 
weather a fire is not necessary, but in winter it is. If 
the polisher notices that his polish chills, he must 
increase the heat of his room. If a moderate amount 
of warmth be brought near the surface as soon as any 
chill is observed, it will probably disappear. A small 
article may be taken to the fire, but with large work 
this course would hardly be con\^enient. In such 
cases a good plan is to hold something warm a short 
distance from the chilled surface, but on no account 
must it touch, nor must the heat be great enough to 
scorch the polish. A common plan, but not altogether 
a good one, is to hold a piece of burning paper near 
the chill. An ordinary flatiron is very useful for 
small chilled patches. When the article is cold or 
damp, chill is more likely to occur. It is, there- 
fore, always necessary to make sure after a stain 
has been used that the wood has become thoroughly 
dry. 

Not less important is the employment of suitable 
materials, both in the polish and in the tools of the 
polisher's art. These latter consist almost entirely of 
wadding or cotton wool and soft linen or cotton rags, 
from which the rubbers to ipply the polish are made; 



68 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



and a few bottles arc wanted to hold the various 
polishes, stains, and their components. 

The pad with which French polish is a])plied is 
called the rubber. Without it the French polisher 
can do little in actual polishing, althc^ugh he may not 
require it in the preliminary operations of oiling and 
staining. However simple in itself the rubber may 
be, it should be properly and carefully made of suitable 
materials; otherwise good work cannot be done with 
it. Those who have seen polishers at work may be 
inclined to infer that no great care is necessary, for a 
dirty rag covering a:i equally uninviting lump of 

wadding is usually 
seen. Examination 
will show the rubber 
to be more carefulh' 
made than might 
have been expected, 
and the expert pol- 
isher would probably 
prefer it to a nice 
clean-looking rubber 
such as a novice 
would choose. Nevertheless, a dirty rubber is not 
wanted, for dirt is fatal to first-class work; hence 
the polisher should keep his rubbers scrupulously 
clean. They will naturally get stained and discolored 
with the polish, but that is a very different matter 
from being dirty. Old rubbers are preferable to new 
ones, provided they have been properly taken care of 
and not allowed to get hard. 

For flat surfaces or fretwork a wad may be prepared 
by using a strip of torn woolen cloth from i in. to 2 
in. wide. Cloth with a cut (^c\^ii is not recommended 




Fig. 110 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



69 




Fig. Ill 



for this purpose, as it is too harsh. Roll the strip 
very tightly into a wad about i in., 2 in., or 3 in. 
diameter, according to the size of the work, and tie 
tightly round with fine twine (Fig. no). This will 
give as nearly as possible a rubber resembling Fig. in. 
This wad is put into a double thickness 
of linen cloth, and the ends axe gath- 
ered up like the ends of a pudding- 
cloth; they are not tied, but are grasped 
as a hand-piece while being used. This 
form of rubber would, however, be use- 
less for bodying up mouldings, beads, quirks, moulded 
handrails, newel posts, etc., and when polishing large 
mahogany doors or other framed furniture it would be 
impossible to get well into the corners of sunk panels, 
as in Fig. 112. 

A well-shaped, soft, pliable rubber, with its rag 

covering free from 
creases, is to a practical 
French polisher equiva- 
lent to a sharp, finely 
set smoothing plane in 
the hands of a cabinet- 
maker. With such a 
rubber, made of wad- 
ding, one is enabled to 
get into corners, round 
turned work, and up to 
the edges of mouldings in a manner impossible with a 
hard, round rubber. To make it, take a sheet of wad- 
ding — this is 9 in. wide — and tear off a piece 6 in. long; 
this will form a conveniently-sized rubber, suitable for 
most work; but for small work use one of smaller size. 
Double the wadding, making it 6 in. by 4j^ in 




Fig. 112 



70 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Squeeze this in the hand, keeping the skin unbroken, 
till in shape it nearly resembles half a bear. The 
rubber sliould then be charged with polish, and 
covered with a piece of soft, clean rag. In folding 
the rag, twist it on the upper side of the rubber. 
Each additional twist will bring it to a sharper point 
and cause the polish to ooze through its surface. It is 
not necessary to put a rag co\ering on the rubbers first 
used. The rubber must be kept free from creases, 
otherwise it will cause the surface to which it is applied 
to be stringy or full of ridges. 

Though rags have been mentioned as suitable for 
the outer covering or casing of the pad, some care in 
their selection is necessary. A piece with a seam 
across it would never do for a rubber, and anything 
which would tend to scratch the film of polish as it is 
being laid or worked on in the final operation of 
spiriting off must be carefully avoided. They must be 
either cotton or linen, and ought to be perfectly soft 
and fine or, at any rate, free from knots or lumps. 
Some polishers advise the exclusive use of linen, but 
this is a needless restriction. It may be mentioned 
that new material may be used as well as rags. To 
render this suitable, all traces of the sizing and 
stiffening with which it may have been finished must 
be removed by a thorough washing. 

An\- material to be used for a polishing rubber must 
be thoroughly well dried. Indeed, the necessity of 
avoiding damp cannot be too much insisted on. With 
regard to the substance of the rubber, white wadding 
is the best to use, and this is readily obtainable from 
any upholsterer or chemist. It may be purer if got 
from the latter, but it is certainly much dearer than 
any reasonable upholsterer would charge for something 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 71 

equally suitable. Wadding bought from an upholsterer 
has a thin skin on one or both sides, according to 
whether it has been split or not. This skin must be 
removed, leaving nothing but the soft cotton. For a 
few cents enough ought to be obtainable to last a con- 
siderable time. It may be useful to know that, if it is 
clean, the raw material used in cotton manufacturing 
districts will do as well as the finest wadding. 
Cotton flock, used by upholsterers as a stuffing for 
mattresses, chairs, etc., is not suitable for polishing, 
except perhaps for the coarsest work. Even for this 
it should not be used if anything better is available. 
Rubbers composed entirely of flannel are occasionally 
recommended for special kinds of work. It is doubt- 
ful if there is any advantage in using flannel, except 
for large, flat surfaces, which can be got over more 
quickly with a large rubber than with a small one. 
The novice is advised to use the wadding rubber, and 
to become an expert polisher with it before experi- 
menting with anything else. 

The size of the rubber will, to some extent, depend 
on the nature of the work, but that above given may 
be regarded as generally suitable. A very large rubber 
is not advisable at first, and the polisher, as he gains 
experience, must be guided by circumstances. In 
handling it, moreover, the polisher will be equally 
guided; a rubber of moderate dimensions is usually 
held by the tips of the thumb and fingers, but the 
polisher will probably find a large rubber can be more 
conveniently used by holding it in the palm of the 
hand. 

The rubber must be charged with polish for use, and 
some care will have to be exercised in doing this. 
The covering of the rubber is opened so that a little 



72 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



l)()lisli can be dropped on the wadding. A C()n\ cnieiit 
way of doinj; this is to have the polish in a bottle, the 
cork of which has a channel or notch cut in it in allow 
only a few drops to escape at a time. Some polishers 
dip a portion of the rubber into the polish, but the 
other method is more generally adopted. It must not 
be saturated; only enough polish to moisten the 
wadding must be used, or what will appear through the 
rag covering when pressed. The rubber having been 
thus charged, gather up the edges of rag as before 
directed. Then, to distribute the polish equally, 
press the rubber moderately firmly into the palm of 
the other hand. The rubber ought now to be ready for 
application to tlic wood, which may be assumed ti? 

ha\c been properly 
prepared to receive 
its first coating of 
polish. 

At this stage the 
principal thing is to 
get a good body of 
polish evenly spread on the wood. How this may 
best be done depends on circumstances; but if the 
desired result is obtained, the precise method is of 
secondary consequence. Let it be assumed that the 
work to be done is a small, flat surface. With moder- 
ate pressure on the rubber, quickh' wipe over the entire 
surface, first with the grain (jf the wood, then across it. 
Then, without delay, go over it more minutely, the 
motion generally adopted for the rubber being shown 
in the illustrations (Eigs. 1 13 and 1 14). At first the pres- 
sure should be gentle, but it should be increased as the 
polish gets worked in and the rubber drier, though at 
no time must the rubbing decline to scrubbing. 




Fig. 11;:; 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 73 

While the rubber is in contact with the wood it must 
be kept constantly in motion. An important point is 
not to allow the rubber to remain stationary on the 
woodwork during temporary absence or at the end of 
the day's work. As the rubber gets dry it must be 
recharged with polish, but let the novice beware of 
using this in excess. 

Old rubbers are better than new, so when done with 
they should be kept in an airtight receptacle, such as 
a tin canister or a biscuit box. When any job is 
finished, do not throw the rubber away under the 
impression that a 
rubber once laid aside 
becomes useless. 
This occurs only 
when it is left ex- 
posed to the air, be- 
cause then it hardens 
throughout. I f , a s 
stated, the rubbers 
are kept from the air, 
only the outside cov- Fig. 114 

ering will get dry and 

hard, and this can be readily softened by rubbing it in 
raw alcohol. 

Every time the rubber is wetted with polish it 
should be pressed in the palm of the left hand, which 
will equalize the polish. After the cover is put over, 
v.hich should be some clean old cotton or print rags, 
the tip of the finger should be dipped in linseed oil 
and applied to rubber cover — just enough to keep it 
from sticking. As soon as the cover has a shiny 
appearance, \^ should be removed to a fresh place. 
As soon as the work has got a good body of polish on, 




74 THE UP-TO-DATE 

it should be set away for at least ten hours, to allow for 
the polish to sink, which always takes place. 

Before commencing to polish again, the work should 
be very carefully rubbed over with the finest glass- 
paper obtainable, taking care not to cut through the 
skin; then proceed as before. Be sure never to let the 
rubber stop in one place for an instant, as it will surely 
take off the polish to the bare wood and spoil the job. 
After the work has sufficient polish on, it should be 
allowed to stand three or four hours before spiriting 
off. 

The same rubber will do; only use spirits. Just 
damp the rubber, and cover three or four times double 
with cover, and rub very lightly over the work; but 
care must be taken not to make the rubber too wet, 
or the work will be spoiled. The same process will 
answer for pine or deal, only no filling is required, but 
a coat of clean patent size, before applying the polish. 

The ingredients for the above kind of work are quite 
numerous, but shellac, dissolved in alcohol, is the basis 
of all French polishes, and some finishers use thin 
shellac varnish without other admixture, slightly 
moistening the rubber with linseed oil to prevent 
stickiness and make it work smoothly. There is a 
great variety of admixtures and diversity in the 
proportion of ingredients, but the differences are not 
material. I subjoin a number of recipes. 

First and Best. — To one pint of spirits of wine add a 
quarter of an ounce of gum-copal, a quarter of an 
ounce of gum arable, and one ounce of shellac. 

Let the gums be well bruised, and sifted through a 
piece of muslin. Put the spirits and the gums together 
in a vessel that can be closely corked; place them 
near a warm stove, and frequently shake them. In 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 75 

two or three days they will be dissolved. Strain the 
mixture through a piece of muslin, and keep it tight 
corked for use. 

Next. — Take one ounce each of mastic, sandarac, 
seed lac, shellac, gum lac, and gum arabic; reduce 
them to powder; and add a quarter of an ounce of 
^■irgin wax; put the whole into a bottle, with one 
quart of rectified spirits of wine; let it stand twelve 
hours, and it will be fit for use. 

Another. — Put into a glass bottle one ounce of 
gum lac, two drachms of mastic in drops, four drachms 
of sandarac, three ounces of shellac, and half an 
ounce of gum dragon; reduce the whole to powder; 
add to it a piece of camphor the size of a nut, and 
pour on it eight ounces of rectified spirits of wine. 
Stop the bottle close, but take care, when the gums 
are dissolving, that it is not more than half full. 
Place near a warm stove until dissolved. 

Other French Polish Recipes. — One pint naphtha, 3>^ 
oz. orange shellac, ^ oz. elima. Darken with red 
Sanders wood. 

To one pint of spirits of wine, add half an ounce of 
gum shellac, half an ounce of seed lac, and a quarter 
of an ounce of gum sandarac; submit the whole to a 
gentle heat,, frequently shaking it, till the various 
gums are dissolved, when it is fit for use. 

Shellac, 6 oz. ; naphtha, i qt. ; sandarac, i oz.; 
benzoin, ^ oz. 

Three oz. shellac, ^ oz. gum mastic pulverized, and 
I pt. methylated spirits of wine added. Let it stand 
till dissolved. 

Twelve oz. shellac, 2 oz. gum, elima, 3 oz. gum copal, 
I gal. spirits of wine; dissolve 

The following must be well mixed and dissolved; 



76 TIIK rr- TO -DATE 

paK- shrllac, 2]^ lb.; 3 oz. mastic, 3 o/. sandarac, I 
^al sj)irits of wine. After the alcove is dissoKed, add 

1 pt. copal N'arnish, i}^ oz. shellac, ]/> oz. gum juniper, 
^ oz. benzoin, J 2 pt. methylated alcohol. 

A Good Polish. — To i pt. spirits of wine add, in fine 
powder, I oz. seed lac, 2 dr. gum guaiacum, 2 dr. 
dragons' blood, and 2 dr. gum mastic; expose them, 
in a vessel stopped close, to a moderate heat for three 
hours, until you find the gum dissolved; strain the 
whole into a bottle for use, with a quarter of a gill of 
the best linseed oil, to be shaken up well with it. 

This polish is more particularly intended for dark- 
colored woods— for it is apt to give a tinge to light 
ones, as satinwood or airwood, etc. — owing to the 
admixture of the dragons' blood, which gives it a red 
appearance. 

A Polish That Will Stand Water.— Take i pt. spirits of 
wine, 2 oz. guHi benzoin, ^ oz. gum sandarac, and % 
oz. gum anime; these must be put into a stopped 
bottle, and placed either in a sand-bath or in hot water 
till dissolved; then strain the mixture, and, after 
adding about a quarter of a gill of the best clear 
poppy oil, shake it well up, and put it by for use. 

Prepared Spirits. — This preparation is useful for 
finishing after any of the foregoing recipes, as it adds 
to the luster and durability, as well as removes every 
defect, of the other polishes and it gives the surface a 
most brilliant appearance. 

Half a pint of the very best rectified spirits of wine, 

2 dr. shellac, and 2 dr. gum benzoin. Put these 
ingredients into a bottle, and keep it in a warm place 
till the gum is all dissolved, shaking it frequently; 
when cold, add two teaspoonfuls of the best clear white 
poppy oil; shake them well together, and it is fit for use. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER ^^ 

This preparation is used in the same manner as the 
foregoing polishes; but, in order to remove all dull 
places, you may increase the pressure in rubbing. 

Polish for Turner's Work. — Dissolve i oz. sandarac in 
Yo, pt. spirits of wine; shav^e i oz. beeswax, and dissolve 
it in a sufficient quantity of spirits 'of turpentine to 
make it into a paste, add the former mixture to it by 
degrees; then, with a woolen cloth, apply it to the 
work while it is in motion in the lathe, and polish it 
with a soft linen rag; it will appear as if highly 
varnished. 

A French Polish Reviver. — Beat gum acacia and white 
of two eggs in a mortar until they amalgamate; then 
add Yo, pt. raw linseed oil and best vinegar, 8 oz. 
rnethylated spirits of wine, i oz. hydrochloric acid and 
2 oz. muriate of antimony. They are to be rubbed on 
the surface of the furniture until dry, and will give a 
brilliant and lasting polish. 

It now remains to explain the several varieties of 
finishing in use; these are largely derived from the 
peculiar qualities of the different varnishes used. 
Polishing varnishes, which are very hard and durable, 
are so called because their surface can be brought to a 
high luster by rubbing with the proper materials. 
Flowing or finishing varnishes contain more oil than 
polishing varnishes, dry more slowly, and are softer, 
but their peculiar qualities are brilliancy and dura- 
bility, fitting them for work requiring a brilliant gloss, 
such as veneered panels. Rubbing varnishes are those 
that dry sufficiently hard to admit of being rubbed to 
a smooth surface. Turpentine varnishes, being the 
cheapest variety, are employed for cheap work, such 
as common chairs, bedsteads, etc. 

Dead Finish is a term applied to the finish pro- 



78 THE UP-TO-DATE 

duced by the reduction of any of the rubbing varnishes 
with powdered pumice-stone and raw linseed oil, the 
surface thus produced being left in the semi-lustrous 
state by omitting the polishing process. It is now 
more used than any other for body work, shellac 
varnish being , generally employed because of its 
adaptation to the requirements of fine cabinet-work, 
and its properties of quick and hard drying. Copal, 
anime, and amber varnishes are also used, but are 
slower drying. The number of coats required depends 
somewhat upon the quality of the filler, but usually 
three coats, and sometimes less, are amply suffi- 
cient. 

Bodying In and Spiriting Off. — The term bodying, 
applied to the polisher's art, means coating the wood 
with a thin, evenly distributed layer of the polish. 
The way in which this is done greatly affects the 
appearance and the durability of the gloss. When the 
body is too thin, the gloss subsequ'ently given to it 
may at first be beautiful, but as the polish sinks or 
perishes the gloss fades. When the body is too thick 
the gloss may appear all right, but the work is apt to 
look treacly^ as though varnish had been used; besides, 
a thick body impairs the pure tone of some woods. 
The high degree of excellence to which polishing is 
capable of being brought is seen only on the best 
cabinet-work. Polish on second-rate furniture or 
finish is generally in keeping with the inferior quality 
of the woodwork. The cheap, gaud}' furniture which is 
often seen in shops must not be taken as models of 
polishing. The price paid for polishing is reduced, 
with the result that inferior polish is used and less time 
is spent on the work. Although the best materials and 
the expenditure of time and labor will not insure good 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 79 

work by unpracticed hands, they are important factors, 
and it will be wise to use materials of good quality. 

To make a good average polish, neither too thick 
nor too thin, about six ounces of shellac to each pint 
of methylated or alcohol spirit will be required, but 
great exactitude in the proportions is not necessary. 
The proportions may vary according to the fancy of 
the polisher, and, to some extent, according to the 
nature of the work he is engaged on. If the polish 
turns out too thick, it can be thinned by adding more 
spirit; if too thin, the deficiency can be made up by 
adding more shellac. A rough-and-ready way of 
measuring the proportions is to half fill a bottle with 
the roughly broken shellac, and then fill up with 
ordinary methylated spirit. 

The shellac dissolves gradually, and the process is 
hastened by an occasional shaking or stirring with a 
stick. Heat is not necessary; indeed, the preparation 
of polish by heat is dangerous. 

Two kinds of polish are used. One, known as 
"white polish,'' is nearly colorless; the other is known 
as "brown polish," or simply "polish." The latter is 
always understood if unqualified by the word "white." 
White polish is made with white or bleached shellac; 
the other with ordinary orange or reddish-brown 
shellac. 

Either polish may be used on any kind of wood, 
except where great purity of tint is required. The 
white is to be preferred for all light woods, such as 
light oak, ash, sycamore, satin, etc., while the brown 
may be used on darker; but even on these, white 
polish is good, with the exception of mahogany, the 
only ordinary fine wood for which a decided preference 
might be given to brown polish. Under ordinary 



8o THE Ur- TO -DATE 

circumstances, however, either polish ma>' l)c used 
incliscriminatcl\'. The point as to brown or white 
pohsh for dark wood belonj^s to the higher branches 
of the polisher's art. 

* It will be sc!en that white polish is the more generally 
useful of the two, so th(jse who do not care to keep 
both kinds may confine themselves to it. Throui^h 
the slightly higher price of the bleached shellac, it 
costs a little more, but the extra cost is so small that it 
is hardly worth considering by those who use small 
quantities. Those who use polish in large quantities 
can have both kinds. 

Polish bought ready-made may be equal to that 
made at home from the recipe given, for there is 
nothing to prevent manufacturers using the same 
ingredients, and man\' of them do. Still, from^ the 
impossibility of knowing the ingredients in read\'- 
made polish, there is some risk attending its use. 
Erom the price at which some polish is sold, it is fair 
to suppose that something cheaper than spirit or 
shellac has been used; and though good polish may be 
bought, it is better for the user to prepare his own, 
which can be depended on. Bought polish may be 
thoroughly good in every wa\' — brilliant, clear, and 
durable — but those who are best able to judge generally 
prefer to make their own polish to do the best class 
of work. Prejudice may account for this preference. 

Manufacturers of polish assert that, in addition to 
shellac, certain gums or resins imi:)ro\e the quality of 
the polish, when used with knowledge and discretion. 
P\:>r instance, one gum may gi\'c increased elasticity, 
while another may harden tlie film; but for a good all- 
round polish, which can be relied on, many polishers 
assert that there is nothing to surpass a simple solution 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 8i 

of shellac and alcohol. A few approved formulae for 
polishes have been given, so that those who feel 
inclined to do so may experiment for themselves. 
Shellac is the principal ingredient in nearl\^ all. Those 
persons who cannot polish with shellac and spirit 
alone will not be able to do any better with the more 
complicated mixtures; therefore, no one should remain 
under the impression that he will do better if he 
works with another kind of polish. 

Enough having now been said about the material, 
we may proceed to the using of it for bodying. In 
the first place, the wood must be prepared by filling of 
one kind or another, and rubbed down smoothly with 
fine or worn glass-paper, in order to make it fit to 
receive the polish, for a high degree of finish cannot 
be got on a rough surface. The rubber, which consists 
of cotton wadding with a soft rag cover, with which 
the polish is applied, has been sufficiently treated on, 
so that nothing more need be said about it. Work, 
rubber, polish, and a little raw linseed oil being ready, 
bodying in may be proceeded with in the foUow^ing 
way: 

Moisten the wadding with polish; put the rag cover 
on carefully, so that it is without folds or wrinkles. 
Dab the rubber into the palm of the left hand to dis- 
tribute the polish evenly, and cause it to moisten the 
rag at the bottom properly. Supposing the work is a 
panel or flat surface, the following will be found a 
good method of treating it, and it is one that is 
followed more or less closely by experienced 
polishers. 

Rub briskly across the grain to get the surface 
covered with polish; then by a series of circular 
movements, as shown by the lines in Figs. 113 and 



82 THE UP-TO-DATE 

114, go over the whole of the work. A moderate 
pressure should be applied, which should l3e increased 
gradually as the rubber dries, but the movement 
should at no time degenerate into mere scrubbing. 
In order that the rubber may work smoothly without 
sticking, a little raw linseed oil should be applied on 
the face of the rubber. The less of this used the 
better, and if it can be dispensed with altogether no 
harm will be done. To make the rubber work smoothly 
a very little will suffice; the \]p of a finger, moistened 
with oil, and touched on the face of the rubber, is all 
that is required. The rubber must not be dipped in 
the oil, nor must the oil l)e di(')pj)ed on it from a 
bottle, for by these means more oil would be applied 
than is necessary, and this would be fatal to good 
work. 

The only recognized oil used in French polishing is 
raw linseed. This may be worked over the natural 
woods in the first place, to give them that peculiar 
tone that cannot be gained by other means; otherwise 
the less oil used the better for the durability of the 
work. Bear in mind that it forms no part of polish in 
itself, being used onh' to enable us to work the gums 
easily; thus, without its aid the polish rubber would be 
apt to stick or drag, thus breaking up the surface 
instead of leveling it. On any surface in which spirit 
varnish forms a part this will be particularly notice- 
able; and in any case, it is next to impossible to get 
that beautiful level surface gained by spiriting out 
unless a little oil is used. 

As the rubber dries, more polish must be applied to 
it, as was done in the first instance, with more oil as 
required. A small quantity of polish goes a long way, 
and the novice must carefully avoid making the 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 83 

rubber wet. It should be no more than fairly 
moist. 

Many a beginner, noticing how tedious the work is 
with a dry rubber, may think that if he used more 
polish the desired result would be more quickly 
attained. If the object were merely to get the wood 
coated, this might be the case; but the result of using 
too much polish would be that the shellac left by the 
quick evaporation of the spirit would be ridgy and 
irregular, instead of in a fine, even coating or body. 
Anything approaching a flow of polish from the 
rubber must be avoided. When the rubber is not 
sufficiently charged with polish, the labor of bodying 
up will be unduly protracted, or may be rendered 
irnpossible if no polish can be rubbed onto the wood. 

The first bodying-in process should be continued 
till it seems that the wood absorbs no more of the 
polish. There will be a perceptible gloss on its sur- 
face, but it will be streaky, and the rubber-marks will 
show very distinctly. All these marks will be removed 
later on. It may be thought that, if the polish is too 
thick or too thin, the result will be very much the 
same as if the rubber were too wet or too dry. The 
principal objection to having the polish too thin is 
that it will take more time in working a good body on 
the wood. It will, however, be better to risk this 
rather than to have the polish too thick. An 
experienced polisher would soon detect fault in either 
direction by the way in which the polish works, but the 
novice must be on the look-out for irregularities in the 
shape of lumps or ridges, and, with a little attention, 
he will have no difficulty in avoiding serious mishaps. 

Let the work stand for at least a day, carefully 
covered up from dust; on examining it the body will 



84 THE UP-TO-DATE 

be found to have altered in appearance to an extent 
which will depend upon how much the polish has 
sunk into the wood. The work must be again bodied 
up as before, always remembering to use as little oil 
as possible. Then it will be again laid aside, and the 
bodying process repeated till the polish no longer 
seems to sink in, even after the work has lain aside for 
a few days. When this stage is reached, the bodying 
may be considered complete, and the work ready for 
the first polishing operations. Before proceeding to 
consider these, however, the novice will do well to 
note the following hints: 

The number of times the work ^ will require to be 
bodied depends on circumstances. Fine, close-grained 
woods will not require so many as the more open 
kinds, such as oak, ash, mahogany, etc.; but for the 
best work, which is intended to be as durable as can 
be, it need rarely exceed four. An inter\al of one or 
more days may elapse between the successive bodies, 
the chief object of waiting being to let them sink as 
much as they will. If, after the work has been laid 
aside for a few days, the polish has not sunk at all, no 
advantage would be gained by giving it another body- 
It is very seldom that the first body is enough, but 
often only one body is applied, where either low price 
or limited time will not allow of more; so those who 
wish to do polishing need not think the. process can- 
not be hurried. 

Still, imperfect bodying is not advisable, as such 
work will soon want touching up. When work is 
made merely to sell, one body, and that of the 
slightest, is sufficient — from the seller's point of view, 
if not from the buyer's. Between the bodyings, 
especially after the first and second, the surface of the 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 85 

work should be rubbed down with fine glass-paper — 
not to rub the body off, but just enough to smooth the 
surface. It may here be remarked that pumice 
powder, used in moderation, is useful for working 
down inequalities of surface. Sandpapering has been 
recommended as necessary after the first and second 
bodies, but the process may be done after any others, 
though it should not be required if the work has been 
skillfully done. In fact, the final bodying up may be 
regarded almost as the beginning of the spiriting off. 

Before beginning to work a fresh body on a previous 
one, it is as well to wash the surface gently with 
lukewarm water, not using too much of it, in order to 
remove the grease and allow the rubber to work freely. 
The water must be thoroughly dried up before apply- 
ing the rubber. In moderation the washing can never 
do harm, and is, generally, an advantage, though not 
absolutely necessary. When a long interval has 
elapsed, the washing should never be omitted, as dust 
will settle on the work; and it need scarcely be said 
that dust should not be rubbed into the polish. 

When bodying up, polishers should see that their 
hands are clean and free from old polish, which is so 
often seen on them. If they are soiled with old polish 
or shellac, bits are apt to flake off and destroy the 
surface of new work. This may be an appropriate 
place to say that any polish which sticks to the hands 
may be washed away with hot water and soda, or with 
alcohol. 

The body should be thin, as it is not so much the 
quantity of body on the wood as its quality that is 
important; it is also essential that it should be applied 
with sufficient intervals between the successive bodies 
to allow of sinkage. 



S6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Another important matter is to dry the rubbers well 
by working them on each body till dry, and not to 
moisten them frequently. By this means the film of 
shellac is kept thin. Neither a wet nor a dry rubber 
should on any account be allowed to stand on a surface 
being polished. The rubber must be kept moving, 
and should glide gradually on to the work, not be 
dabbed down on it. In the initial stages of bodying, 
care in this respect is not so important as later on, 
when it is absolutely necessary. The same precaution 
should be used when lifting the rubber from the work. 

For the guidance of beginners, it may be stated that 
if they take care of the edges, of the work the rest of 
the surface will look after itself. The reason is that 
the edges are apt to be somewhat neglected, and the 
polish to be less there than elsewhere. The secret of 
a good, durable polish depends primarily on a good 
body, and this, in its turn, on sufficient time having 
been allowed for sinkage. 

The final operation in French polishing, by which 
the gloss is put on the body pre\'iously applied, is 
known as spiriting off. In this operation rubber marks 
and smears of all kinds are removed, and the beautiful 
surface, known as French polish, is the result. Body- 
ing is important so far as durability is concerned, but 
spiriting is more so with regard to finish. If the 
worker fails in spiriting, his previous efforts will, to a 
great extent, have been in \ain. Disregarding staining, 
darkening, and other processes, with which 'a good 
polisher should be acquainted, the spiriting is perhaps 
the most severe test of skill in the whole process of 
polishing; and a man who can manage this part of the 
work really well may be considered a competent 
polisher. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 87 

The first operation to be described in the process of 
spiriting off partakes very much of the nature of body, 
ing in. At the beginning it is bodying, and at the end 
spiriting. The two processes merge one into the other. 
There is no abrupt break, as between filling and bodying, 
except for the intermediate stage, although the processes 
are well defined, both in character and purpose. This 
intermediate stage is not always practiced, but it is rec- 
ommended when good work is wanted. Briefly, spiriting 
off consists in washing the bodied surface with methyl- 
ated spirit. This being understood, the final bodying up, 
or first spiriting off, whichever this process may be 
called, consists in gradually reducing the quantity of 
polish in the rubber, and supplying its place with spirit. 
The polish is gradually reduced by the addition of spirit 
till all the polish has been worked out of the rubber. 
The rubber may be charged, first with three parts 
polish and one part spirit; next, time equal quantities; 
the third time three parts spirit and one part polish; 
and the fourth charging will be with spirit only. It 
does not follow that these proportions need be strictly 
observed, nor are they so in practice, but this example 
illustrates the process. The last rubber will be almost 
free from polish, and it should be worked till it is dry, 
or nearly so. 

At this stage spiriting proper may begin, and a fresh 
rubber should be used. It need not be a new one, but 
it should be one which has been used only for spiriting, 
and which has no polish on it. It will be better if it 
has three or four coverings of rag on its face, which 
can be removed as they dry. If only one cover is used 
the spirit is apt to evaporate too quickly. The spirit 
in the rubber has a tendency to partially dissolve the 
shellac or body on the wood. This it does to a very 



88 THE Ul'- TO -DATE 

limited extent, unless the rubber is made too wet, when 
there is danger of not only spiriting and smoothing the 
surface, but of actually washing away the bod\'. This 
mishap must be carefully guarded against. There 
should be enough spirit to allow the surface of the 
body to be softened and smoothed, but no more, and 
the rubbing should be uniform, and not more in one 
place than in another. There is hardly any likeli- 
hood of the novice erring by using too little spirit, so 
he may be reminded that the less of it there is in the 
rubber at a time the better. The rubbing should be 
gentle at first, becoming harder as the spirit dries off, 
and oil must not be used on the rubber face, for when 
there is oil either on the rubber or on the work, the 
polish cannot be brought up. 

The chief cause of failure lies in getting the spirit 
rubber too wet, and so softening and tearing up the 
gums. Many meet with success by dispensing with it, 
using instead a swab of clean, soft rag, fairly damp 
(not wet) with alcohol. 

If the spiriting-off process is being done correctly 
the gloss will soon begin to appear, and when it 
seems approaching a finished condition, the rubber 
ought to be moved only in the direction of the grain, 
and not across it nor with circular motion. The final 
touches should be given with the soft rubber rag alone, 
care being taken not to scratch the surface, which is 
now softened by the action of the spirit. The surface 
will gradually harden, but for a time it should be 
handled with care, and nothing be allowed to come in 
contact with it, or it is very likely to be marked. It 
should also be protected from dust, for any settling on 
it may be retained by the polish, the luster of which 
would certainly suffer. 



PIARDWOOD FINISHER 89 

Hardwood finishers, and perhaps dealers in furniture, 
who do not keep an experienced polisher, or who may 
not be able to get their work done out, may be 
reminded that, circumstances permitting, polished 
work should be wiped over with a spirit-rubber an hour 
or two before it is finished, to freshen it up. If the 
surface is at all soft, neither packing mats, nor any- 
thing else likely to injure it, should be allowed to come 
in contact with it. The polishing on many things sent 
long journeys is often greatly disfigured from mat and 
other markings, but they are easily touched up on 
arrival at their destination. 

Some polishers make use of a glaze in order to kill 
the oil, just before spiriting off, which is made as 
follows: 

Gum-benzoin, 6 oz., dissolved in alcohol spirit I pt. 
Gums other than that mentioned may be substituted in 
order to cheapen the glaze for commercial purposes, 
or to suit the fancy of polishers who make up their own 
solutions. The glaze is used chiefly when leveling 
down spirit varnish, and for the purpose of imparting 
a bright finish to mouldings. As practical workers have 
always at hand rubbers that are specially charged with 
white polish, brown or red polish, and another rubber 
for glaze, a clear, bright finish on some kinds of work 
may be easily gained by passing the glaze rubber along 
the edges, sunk portions, or even over the whole of a 
flat surface just before clearing out with the spirit pad. 
The workman must not, however, suppose that such 
treatment will entirely kill the oil, if an excessive 
quantity of oil has been used. Any excess of oil 
should be cleared off beforehand; or, better still, 
entirely avoided, if a good, lasting quality of work is 
desired. 



go THE UP-TO-DATE 

Glazing, though an imitation, has a recognized 
acceptance among polishers. It is remarkably con- 
venient occasionally, and in some cases possesses an 
advantage over spiriting, so that it may fairly be 
classed among the ordinary processes of polishing. 
When done in moderation, glazing is as useful on 
furniture carving as the application of spirit varnish. 
Such work is commonly said, and justly, to be French 
polished. The real objection to glaze finish is that, 
though at first the appearance is equal, it is not so 
durable as the other. Glaze may be said to be even 
superior to badly spirited finish, and here is the chief 
claim it has for notice. It is seldom that a casual 
polisher can manage to do spiriting thoroughly, for the 
reason that he has not sufficient opportunity of acquir- 
ing practice. 

Nevertheless, finishing by means of glaze is not so 
good as the method by spiriting, when the latter is 
well done, and should be considered as a means of 
getting the same effect easily and quickly — an 
imitation, in fact, of the real thing; the difference 
between the spirit and glaze finishes is that in the one 
case the effect is produced by friction, in the other by 
the addition of a thin, fine varnish to the surface of 
the body of polish. In the former case the polish 
itself is polished; in the latter it is varnished with a 
mixture known commonly as glaze, but to which other 
names are sometimes given. 

Among polishers who command a fair price for 
their work, glaze is of comparatively limited applica- 
tion, and is confined to those parts where the spirit' 
rubber cannot be conveniently used, or where its use 
is not necessary. Instances of such may be found in 
chair-rails and various parts of the frame. These are 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 91 

usually polished, more or less, before the chair is 
upholstered, or, at any rate, before the outer covering 
is put on, the finishing being almost necessarily done 
last of all. The less the chair is handled by the 
polisher the better, especially if the covering is a 
delicate one, for there is less risk of injury with one 
or two wipes over with the glaze rubber than with the 
more prolonged spiriting. 

Glaze may be used with advantage in inlaid work, 
where the inlay is slightly, though perhaps not 
intentionally, higher than the surrounding wood. In 
such a case it is better to resort to glaze than to finish 
with the spirit rubber. On fretwork, also, glaze may 
often be used with advantage, and, generally, it is 
unobjectionable on parts which are not subject to wear 
and tear. It will stand a moderate amount of handling, 
but not so much as good, hard spirited-off polish, and 
the luster is not so durable. 

Glaze, under one or other of its different names, 
may be bought ready-made, but, for reasons similar to 
those given in connection with French polish, the 
home-made article is to be recommended. The prep- 
aration of glaze is simple, the ingredients being gum- 
benzoin and methylated spirit. After the benzoin is 
dissolved, the solution should be strained through 
muslin to free it from foreign matter. The proportions 
may vary, but those given for polish do very well, and 
with the substitution of crushed benzoin for shellac the 
process of making is exactly the same. 

Gum-benzoin differs greatly in quality, but the best 
should be used by the polisher. Compared with lac it 
is expensive, so that the saving which is attributed to 
its use is mainly in time, which is money, at least from 
a trade point of view. Cheap benzoin is not to be 



92 THE UP-TO-DATE 

relied on, and in a strange place an experienced 
polisher would look with suspicion on any offered at a 
very low price, however satisfactory its appearance. 
Where material is liable to adulteration, the best way 
to avoid imposition is to go to a reliable dealer and to 
pay a fair price. 

Glaze, as used by French polishers, can be bought 
ready-made at most color stores, as patent glaze; it 
improves with age. To make the genuine article, 
dissolve 6 or 8 ounces of best gum-benzoin in i pint of 
alcohol spirit. Keep it in a closely stoppered bottle, 
otherwise the spirit will evaporate quickly. 

Glaze may be applied with either rubber, sponge, or 
brush; in most cases the rubber is most suitable and is 
most commonly used. It is made in the ordinary way 
as used for polish, but it must not be applied with 
pressure. The glaze is painted on rather than rubbed 
into the work, which must have been previously bodied 
in. There seems to be an idea that glaze or something 
put on bare wood will cause a gloss right off; but 
nothing will do this. A polish can only be got on 
wood by varnish, or by bodying-in and polish. 

When using glaze, the rubber should be made wetter 
than for polish or spirit; but still there should not be 
sufficient to drip from it. It should glaze or wet the 
wood when the rubber is very lightly pressed on it. 
One or two wipes in the direction of the grain of the 
wood, with a somewhat quick motion, will put the 
glaze on. Always let the glaze dry before applying 
the rubber again to the same place. The coats may 
be repeated till the gloss is satisfactory, but the film 
of glaze should never be made a thick one. 

If preferred, a sponge may be used exactly as a 
rubber would be, but it is questionable if there is any 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 93 

advantage gained; it is rather a matter of fancy. 
When a brush is used, the glaze may be applied as a 
varnish pure and simple. With a brush a mixture of 
glaze and French polish, either white or brown, 
according to the work, in equal quantities, may be used 
with advantage. 

Glaze that is not so satisfactory in appearance as it 
should be, may sometimes be improved by passing a 
spirit-rubber lightly over it, though this should be done 
with great caution, to avoid washing it off. When 
carefully and skillfully done, there can be little doubt 
that a glazed surface may be often, if not always, 
improved by slightly spiriting it. 

To glaze a wide surface, see that it is free from dull 
streaks and ridges and oil, and the rubber soft and free 
from fluff. Apply the glaze as evenly as possible, 
going over the surface several times, until the rubber 
is nearly dry; then, with the smallest quantity of oil 
and a little spirits, go over the -glaze, very lightly at 
first, varying the direction of the rubber to avoid ridges. 
A dull, even surface may be obtained by adding one- 
third to one-half of sandarac to the solution of 
benzoin, and using the rubber only damp — not 
saturated. 

Old French polished work may often be revived by 
being lightly gone over with glaze after the surface has 
been washed and cleaned with warm water. This 
treatment is often considerably better than that 
commonly adopted with furniture pastes, polishes, 
creams, and revivers of various kinds. 

Wax Polishing. — Although the beauty of most 
furniture woods is enhanced to the highest degree by 
French polishing when well done, there are other 
processes which, though not capable of being brought 



94 THE UP-TO-DATE 

to such perfection, are much simpler. Among these 
is wax polish in<^. This mode of finishing is remark- 
ably easy, both as regards materials and manipulation, 
and the unskilled novice can manage to wax-polish 
almost as well as an expert. It is, therefore, a suitable 
process for the beginner. 

Though any wood may be treated by waxing, it is 
generally confined to oak, especially after this has been 
darkened by fumigation with ammonia. The appear- 
ance of oak so finished is comparatively dull, but it has 
an attractiveness which French polish does not possess 
for all eyes. 

For antique oak furniture— whether genuine or 
imitation — wax is the best finish, though varnish is 
often used. Wax polish, though it may not give the 
same amount of gloss, is clearer and finer. Varnish 
clogs the wood, and is apt to give a treacly look to any 
piece of furniture finished with it. 

Mahogany may very appropriately be finished by 
wax polish, and for many purposes it may be superior 
to the dulled French polish so often seen. The top of 
a dining-table is apt to be rendered unsightly from 
hot plates or dishes injuring the polished surfaces. 
The heat burns or blisters the hardened shellac of the 
French polish, and a finish which is not so liable to 
disfigurement is preferable; this is found in wax polish. 
Usuall}', dining-table tops (unless French polished) are 
simply oil polished. Waxing is, however, less tedious, 
and at least as suitable for the purpose, and the readi- 
ness with which an accidental marking can be obliter- 
ated renders it particularly useful. 

Wood stained black, to produce so-called ebony, 
may be wax polished. The result is certainly a closer 
approximation to the appearance of real ebony than 



HARDWOOD FINISHER gj 

when the work is French polished in the usual way. 
By polishing fretwork articles with wax they may 
easily be made to look better than many of them do 
when unskillfully French polished. 

Though it has been said that any wood may be wax 
polished, there can be no question that this process 
answers best on the more coarsely-grained woods, 
such as oak and ash; for pine and other light woods of 
close texture it is not so well suited, unless they have 
been previously stained. 

The ingredients for wax polish are, in the simplest 
mixture, beeswax and turpentine. Resin and Venice 
turpentine are occasionally added. Resin is added 
with the intention of hardening the surface; but pro- 
vided the wax be of good quality, these additions are 
quite unnecessary, if not injurious, and a good result 
should be got from wax and turps. 

Wax and turpentine alone are all the materials 
necessary to make a good wax polish, and when any- 
thing else enters into the composition the mixture is 
one of a fancy character. It is not proposed to discuss 
the qualities of beeswax offered for sale, and the 
polisher must decide what kind he gets. Some advo- 
cate the use of fine white wax, and possibly a better 
finish may sometimes be got with it than with the ordi- 
nary yellow wax, which, however, is the kind generally 
used; the only occasions when it might not be so good 
as the white are when extreme purity of tone is 
required for a light wood. Wood perfectly white is, 
however, seldom wax polished. 

The way in which wax polish is prepared depends a 
good deal on the proportions of the materials. For a 
liquid polish, shred the wax finely, and pour the tur- 
pentine over it, leaving the two till they are incor- 



96 THE UP-TO-DATE 

porated. Cold turpcntiiu.' will dissolve wax slowly, 
but a more expeditious iiK^-thod is to melt the wax by 
heat, and before it has time to solidify pour the tur- 
pentine into it. Caution is necessary when melting 
wax, and on no account should the turpentine be 
poured into the wax while it is still on the fire. With 
ordinary care there is no danger, and the possibility of 
a mishap is suggested merely for the benefit of those 
who might otherwise overlook the inflammable charac- 
ter of turpentine vapor. Should the mixture be either 
too thick or too thin, there will be no trouble in alter- 
ing its consistency afterwards. 

To thin a mass which is too stiff, a very moderate 
warming, by placing the bottle in hot water, will reduce 
it to a more liquid form, as the turpentine already in 
it facilitates the change, and more turpentine is added. 
To stiffen the mixture, wax should be melted separately, 
and the original mixture added to it. The heat of the 
freshly melted wax will probably be sufficient to cause 
all the materials to mix. In any case, the wax should 
be thoroughly melted before the turpentine is added, 
as a lumpy mixture is neither pleasant to work with 
nor conducive to good finish. The natural tendency 
of a wax polishing mixture, exposed to the air, is to 
stiffen, on account of the evaporation of the turpen- 
tine. A considerable time must elapse before there is 
an appreciable alteration, and the fact that a change 
does go on, slowly, is mentioned to remind polishers 
that if they have a considerable quantity of the mix- 
ture standing over, they must not expect it to retain its 
original consistency unless kept in a closed vessel, 
such as a tightly-corked bottle. 

A hint for those who think that the more ingredients 
a mixture contains the better it must be, and who are 

» 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 97 

not satisfied unless there is a certain amount t^f resin 
in their wax polishing paste: Always melt the resin 
first, and add the wax gradually, and constantly stir. 
Whether resin be used or not, the mixture should be 
allowed to get quite cold before it is applied to tiie 
work. 

Although the consistency of wax polish varies con- 
siderably, the comparative merits of different degrees 
of stiffness or fluidity must be considered, so that an 
intelligent conception of the polisher's aim may be 
arrived at. Suppose a piece of beeswax, without any 
admixture of turpentine, is rubbed on a piece of 
smooth, flat wood. Some of the wax adheres to the 
surface, which, when friction is applied, becomes 
glossy or polished. The labor, however, is consider- 
able, and though dry w^ax may do on a flat surface, 
when mouldings or carvings are to be treated, the diffi- 
culties in the wa}^ of satisfactory application are con- 
siderable. The remedy is to soften the wax so that it 
may be got into all parts of the work. Melted wax 
might do, but in putting it on to the wood it becomes 
cold, and consequently reverts to its original stiffness. 
We have then to get the wax to a fair working consist- 
ency by means of some suitable solvent, v/hich turpen- 
tine has proved to be. It is cleanly, inexpensive, and 
evaporates sufficiently quickly, besides mixing well 
with the wax. Some polishers prefer what others 
might think an excess of turpentine. When a stiff 
paste is used, the wax is apt to be deposited in excess- 
i\^e quantity, necessitating a considerable amount of 
rubbing, in places, to remove it. A fluid polish spreads 
the wax much more evenly, but no gloss can be 
obtained till the turpentine has disappeared, either 
evaporated or been absorbed by the wood. When the 



qS the up-to-date 

polish has been laid evenly over the work, this does 
not take long; so a thin mixture may be considered 
preferable to a very stiff one. A paste of about the 
consistency of butter in hot weather, might be regarded 
as a medium. Those who use a wax polish which 
could be poured would consider this stiff, while others 
who add yery little turpentine, or who believe in resin, 
would consider it thin. A thick mixture or a thin one 
may be used, the result depending more on the manip- 
ulation of the material than on the material itself; and 
this manipulation may next be considered. 

In the application of wax polish there is almost as 
great a variety in practice as in proportion of ingredi- 
ents. The great thing is to have the wax — the turpen- 
tine is merely the vehicle for conveying this^evenly 
and thinly distributed, and so long as this is done it is 
of small consequence how it is managed. To spread 
the wax with, some use a piece of rag, while others 
prefer a stiff brush specially made for the purpose, and 
both get equally good results. After the wax has been 
spread the polish is obtained by friction, and the more 
you rub the brighter the polish will be. The brush or 
cloth used to rub the wax into the wood should not be 
employed to give the finishing touches. In this final 
friction it is essential that the cloth or brush used be 
perfectly dry, as if it is at all damp no polished surface 
can be produced. The final polish is best done with a 
perfectly clean rubber, and three sets of cloths or rub- 
bers may be used. With the first the mixture is to be 
rubbed on the wood, with the second it is to be rubbed 
off till a fair amount of polish is got, while with the 
third the rubbing should be continued till the surface 
is as bright as it can be got. 

The directions which have been given should enable 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 99 

any one to wax-polish wood successfully. Hard dry 
rubbing, with energetic application, is at least as impor- 
tant as the wax and turpentine; for, though more sim- 
ple than the French polishing process, it is more 
laborious. 

Oil Finishing and Dry Shining. — The following descrip- 
tion of the methods of oil polishing and dry shining 
is taken largely from an English work on the subject, 
and may be depended upon as being fairly correct and 
up to date: 

The simple process of oil polishing must now receive 
attention; and there is still something to admire in a 
comparatively dull oiled surface. The process simply 
consists of rubbing in linseed oil and polishing with a 
soft rag. The oiling and polishing must be continued 
at intervals till the requisite shine is obtained. To get 
the best results takes time and friction. Oil polishing 
is not difficult, but it is decidedly fatiguing and 
tedious. The more the surface is rubbed the better, 
and the process may be extended over some weeks. 
Patience and energetic application are still more essen- 
tial than with wax polishing, for to get even the sem- 
blance of a polish or gloss within a week or two with 
the aid of oil must not be expected. How long does it 
take to finish a thing properly with oil? It may be 
said the work is never finished. An oiled surface will 
always bear more rubbing than it has had, and will not 
be deteriorated by friction; still from one to two 
months should suffice to get a good polish, which will 
be durable according to the amount of labor bestoweci 
upon it during that time. This is more time than can 
be devoted to the finishing touches of a piece of furni- 
ture generally nowadays, so it may almost be consid- 
ered that oil polishing is an obsolete process. 



LofC. 



100 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Still, it (iocs not.follow that because the process is 
too lon*4' to be remunerative in ordinary work it should 
not be worthy of attention, especially as it has merits 
which recommend it where speed is not a primary con- 
sideration. One great advantage of it is that it is 
much more durable than either French or wax polish; 
it does not blister by heat like the former, nor spoil 
with water to such an extent as the latter, with which 
in general appearance it may be compared. It is 
because it does not blister by heat that it is especially 
useful. An ordinary French polished dining-table top 
shows the damage caused by hot dishes laid on it, 
unless great care has been taken. On an oil polished 
dining-table top the same hot dishes might be placed 
almost with impunity; and it is chiefly dining-table 
tops that have prevented oil polishing becoming quite 
extinct. Though the whole of a table, or anything 
else, may he polished with oil, it is usual, even when 
the top is oiled, to polish the legs and frame otherwise. 

Linseed oil is the only material used in pure oil fin- 
ish, but other ingredients ha\'e been used, till it is 
difficult to recognize the distinction between oil polish- 
ing and French polishing. The two processes may 
overlap to an almost indefinite extent, but with these 
we have, at present at any rate, nothing to do, and to 
discuss them might only tend to confuse the novice. 
Authorities differ on the state in which the linseed oil 
should be used, some recommending boiled, others 
raw, and others various proportions of the two. For 
ordinary work boiled linseed oil is perhaps the better, 
but this is not intended to imply that those who prefer 
raw oil are wrong; therefore any oil polisher who has 
an inclination for some fancy mixture of boiled and 
raw oils can use it. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER loi 

The treatment is very much the same as in wax pol- 
ishing. It consists in rubbing the oil well into the 
wood, not saturating or flooding, but scrubbing it, and 
then rubbing long and hard. The process may be 
repeated almost indefinitely, daily or at longer inter- 
vals, till a polish which is deemed sufficient appears. 
For example, take a table top, rub some oil well into 
it, and then polish with a rubber formed by wrapping 
some baize, felt, or similar material round a brick or 
other suitable block, the purpose of which is, by its 
weight, to some extent to relieve the polisher from 
using his muscles in applying pressure. The rubbing 
should be continued till the surface of the wood is dry. 
The only perceptible difference in the top will be the 
darkened appearance caused by the oil, as little or no 
gloss will appear at first. By repeating the operation, 
however, a polish will come up gradually, and a sur- 
face which in the opinion of many is superior to that 
of French polish will be the ultimate result. Should 
the polish sweat, some methylated spirit may be 
rubbed in. This will dry the surface without spoiling 
the polish. 

Oil polishing is hardly suitable for anything but 
plain work, on account of the labor required; but any 
piece of work can be so polished if the necessary time 
and labor be given to it. Even when it is not 
deemed practicable to bring up a polish with oil, a 
very pleasing finish may be given to a piece of work by 
merely rubbing it with oil. The color is enriched to 
an extent which perhaps would hardly be credited by 
those who have not had frequent opportunities of see- 
ing wood in the white and again after being oiled. In 
choice mahogany especially the improvement is very 
marked. Light oak is also greatly improved in tone. 



102 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Frctworkers who arc not proficient in French j)olisli- 
ing would be more satisfied with the appearance of 
anything they make if they simply oiled it instead of 
coating it with shellac, which has to serve for French 
polish. 

Dry shining will be found a simple process after the 
ordinary methods of French p(3lishing have been mas- 
tered. Finishing work by dry shining is the crudest 
and simplest way in which a gloss can be got on the 
surface of wood by means of a thin varnish of shellac 
and methylated spirit. It must not be mistaken for 
\arnishing, as this process is ordinarily understood, for 
it is distinctly a process of French polishing. Even 
those who have managed to do bodying-up and spirit- 
ing-off, or even glazing, will find the operation of dry 
shining simple in comparison. It is the nearest 
approach to varnishing by means of a rubber, instead 
of a brush, that polishers practice. The wood is var- 
nished with ordinary French polish, applied by means 
of the polisher's specia'l appliance — the rubber. 

Dry shining, unlike glazing, is not in any degree a 
substitute for the difficult process of spiriting-off, and 
those who think to get a high degree of finish on their 
work by means of dry shining may give up the illu- 
sion. When a really good finish is wanted, French 
polishing, as it is ordinarily understood, should be 
chosen, for there is no efficient substitute by which a 
like result can be got. 

Dry shining can be used in any position where a high 
degree of finish is not necessary or customary. It is 
useful for finishing inside work — such as the insides of 
boxes, drawers, cabinets, and interior parts generally — 
and is often seen on the fronts of drawers and trays 
enclosed in a wardrobe. The chief advantages in con- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 103 

nection with it are that it can be done expeditiously, 
and therefore cheaply; that it sufficiently closes the 
grain of the wood to prevent dust getting in and clog- 
ging it; and that it gives a certain degree of finish 
which wood, left in the white or altogether unpolished 
does not possess. 

The wood is bodied-in without any preparatory fill- 
ing, but otherwise precisely in the manner as already 
directed. It is not customary to take such precau- 
tions to get up a good body as there recommended. 
A better description of the process is to say that the 
wood is wiped over with the polish rubber; not much 
trouble is usually taken to do more than get the pre- 
liminary body worked on. There is no reason why the 
first body should not be allowed to sink, and the article 
then be rebodied if necessary. Much bodying-in would 
make the work almost as hard as that involved in ordi- 
nary French polishing, so that ordinarily the bodying- 
in dry shining is done more quickly. 

When the bodying-in has been done to the satisfac- 
tion of the polisher, the rubber is charged with French 
polish, rather more fully than was recommended for 
bodying. Instead of being rubbed all over the wood 
in any direction, it is wiped over in the direction of 
the grain from end to end of the piece, very much in 
the manner mentioned in connection with glazing. 
The rubber may be moved backwards and forwards till 
dry, but a. better way under ordinary circumstances is 
to let the polish deposited by each rub dry before going 
over the same place again. When using the rubber in 
finishing, it should have no oil; and if the former of 
these two methods is adopted it will be difficult to 
prevent the polish dragging, so the easier course 
should be adopted. 



104 TIIK UP-TO-DATE 

Repolishing and Reviving. — Having once mastered 
the tundamcntal principle of polishing, it is a com- 
paratix'ely easy task to give to a plain piece of wood a 
le\'cl and lustrous surface; and, by the use of stains 
that can be bought ready prepared, a fair imitation of 
any given wood can be obtained with but little labor. 
But the polisher who wishes to hold his own against 
all comers, must be able to do more than merely to 
stain and polish a plain piece of new wood. 

When dealing with old work that requires repolish- 
ing, all dirt, grease, and furniture paste must be 
removed by careful washing with soda and warm 
water and powdered pumice-stone or bath-brick. It 
can then be F^rench polished, or a fresher and more 
satisfactory appearance may be given by applying 
^ one or two coats of brown hard spirit varnish — such 
as can be bought at an oil and color merchant's — care- 
fully with a camel-hair brush. 

When varnished work has to be dealt with, first clean 
off all the varnish and then repolish in the way 
described in previous chapters, except that filling will 
probably be dispensed with. The varnish can 
generally be more easily removed by scraping than by 
papering. With care the varnish can be washed off 
with soda or potash and water, but on account of the 
liability to injure the wood it is scarcely advisable to 
adopt this method. 

For removing polish from flat surfaces, the steel 
scrapers as used by cabinetmakers are the best tools 
to use. In turned and other work which has an uneven 
surface the old coating can nearly all be got off by 
application of strong hot soda water, to which may be 
added some oxalic acid in difficult cases. When a 
large quantity of work has to be treated, use the follow- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 105 

ing mixture: 5^ lb. potash, y^ lb. soft soap, ^ lb. rock 
ammonia, i lb. washing soda, 3 ounces of nitric acid, i 
gallon of water. Apply with a fiber or scrubbing 
brush, taking care of the hands. Swill off with plenty 
of clean water. When the work is dry, oil and fill in; 
then repolish. 

Spirit varnish can be removed by washing with 
methylated spirit, which redissolves the lac. This is 
both a tedious and somewhat expensive method, which 
need be resorted to only for delicate mouldings and 
other work which cannot well be cleaned by scraping 
or by scouring with some liquid which, though it would 
remove the varnish, might stain and so spoil the wood. 
Alcohol, being neutral, may be used on any wood, as it 
will not affect the color. 

When dealing with cabinets or other built-up work, 
the process of repolishing will be simplified somewhat 
by taking apart as much as convenient. It is a good 
plan to unhinge all doors, to remove all carvings that 
may be screwed on from the back, and to remove all 
knobs, brass fittings, etc. — not forgetting to put some 
tallying mark on each piece which might be liable to 
misplacement. Thus the doors can be better handled 
on the bench, the corners of panels can be worked up 
better, and the carvings can be varnished better. 
When the carvings are planted on, as is often done, a 
much cleaner job is made if these are first removed; 
for it is a difficult task to polish the open carvings 
equal to the flat surface. 

Sometimes polished work is disfigured by fine little 
lines which are caused by cracks, resulting from sweat- 
ing. These lines become visible through the dust 
settling on the exuding oil. This disfigurement can be 
averted almost entirely by occasionally carefully wiping 



io6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

with a soft, damp cloth. Sweating is not entirely prc- 
ventible, but when the oil has ceased to exude, which 
may not be for some months, the work may be 
repolished with advantage. 

The perfectly level, brilliant polish found on new 
German pianos fills many an American French-polisher 
with envy. Unfortunately, this brilliant polish does 
not last long, and the majority of the pianos soon have 
a greasy, cracked appearance. Indeed, there are but 
few of these pianos with a polish gained by the legiti- 
mate process of French polishing. This brilliant, 
level polish is gained by a very liberal use of gum 
sandarac, and when the polishing is completed the 
pianos are set aside in a clean, hot room, which has 
the effect of causing the polish or gums to flow to one 
dead level. Some makers use varnish verv freely, 
and, before passing to the hot room, level this by 
means of pumice powder, tripoli, putty powder, and 
sometimes flour. 

When the requisite number of coats of varnish have 
been laid, the surface is leveled with fine glass-paper 
^ and linseed oil, or by the slower process of felt rubber 
and pumice powder. After being wiped perfectly 
clean, a rubber made of soft flannel, or, better still, of 
old silk, is used to rub carefully and lightly in a 
circular direction with tripoli powder and oil, till the 
surface is perfectly level and inclined to be bright; it 
is then rubbed with dry putty powder and silk, and 
finally brightened with flour. 

The surface should be left perfectly free from any 
trace of the polishing powders; neglect of this 
accounts for the white patches sometimes seen on the 
German pianos. These patches are not so deep as 
they appear at first sight, and may often be removed 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 107 

with flour emery and linseed oil or turps without 
disturbing the polish. 

To renovate the polish on these pianos is difficult, 
but when it is not very bad, a reviver made of equal 
parts of linseed oil, lime water, and turps is generally 
effective. The lime water and oil are first thoroughly 
mixed; then the turps is added, and the mixture is 
applied by means of wadding. The surface is wiped 
off with a rag, and finished with a clean, soft rag swab, 
made fairly moist with methylated spirit. Should any 
trace of grease still remain, change to a clean place of 
the already moist rag, and sprinkle a few spots of 
glaze on its face, or, better still, wipe the face of the 
glaze rubber over the face of the clean swab. 

Should this method prove ineffective it will be 
necessary to repolish, first removing the sweat or 
roughness by fine sandpaper and oil, or by washing 
with weak soda water and pumice powder. The polish 
used should be made with spirit instead of naphtha, 
and, to ensure its lasting qualities, it should be bodied 
up one day and finished the next. 

To darken the birch frame of a chair, wipe it over 
with asphaltum dissolved in turpentine (one cent's 
worth in half a pint of turps). This stains without 
giving a painted appearance; should there be any 
difficulty in obtaining asphaltum, Vandyke brown may 
be used, mixed to a thin paste with liquid ammonia — 
or with a strong solution of common washing soda. 
This is thinned with water, till of the required tone, 
which will readily be found by trying its effect on any 
odd piece of wood. If French pol ish cannot be applied, 
the most suitable thing to use is brown hard spirit 
varnish. 

For restoring polish that has faded from damp or 



io8 TIIK UP -TO- DATE 

exposure to the sun, those stains which are used to 
stain the common woods will not be suitable. It may 
be convenient to remo\e only the upper surface of the 
polish, to color the faded ])ortion so as to match its 
surroundings, and to repolish the whole. When the 
polish is not very bad, it is generally sufficient to 
smooth it well with a piece of worn glass-paper. 
When it is much scratched or faded, methylated spirit 
should be sprinkled upon it, and the' surface well 
rubbed with No. i sandpaper, applied with a circular 
motion; it will then be found that only the upper 
surface of the polish will be removed. Before 
repolishing, it is advisable first to wash the article with 
water to which a little common washing soda has been 
added. This will remove any dirt, furniture paste, etc.; 
a little pumice powder or powdered bath-brick may 
be used to assist. 

After the necessary cleaning off of dirt, etc., has 
been accomplished, any bruises must be removed, 
either by scraping out or b\^ bringing up level, by 
means of a hot iron and moisture, or by filling up with 
hard stopping, or by the still better method previously 
given. When this has been done, and all defective 
parts made good, the surface must be wiped over with 
an oily rag; it assists the new polish to take kindly to 
the old. In scraping out the bruises, in cleaning off 
level any new piece, and in cleaning off the polish, it 
is probable that light patches may be made. More 
especially will these be made apparent if the damaged 
portion has been previously colored up by stains, dry 
colors, or dyed polish. 

For coloring up or matching, it is generally suffi- 
cient, if the wood in hand is mahogany, to wipe over 
the damaged portion with red oil, which consists of % 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 109 

ib. of alkanet root steeped in i pint of linseed oil, 
working up with red polish. Should the wood be 
walnut, many a little blemish and scratch in soft 
resinous varnish may be matched by wiping over with 
a solution of one cent's worth of asphaltum dissolved 
in y^ pint turps. Should the defect be a piece of sap 
or other light portion, go over the light portion several 
times with the polish rubber to prevent the grain from 
rising, and then saturate a small tuft of wadding with 3 
parts of methylated spirits to i part of polish; on this 
wadding place a small quantity of Vandyke brown or 
brown umber, mix well, and carefully wipe over the 
light portions, thinning out with spirits if too dark, 
picking up a little more color if not dark enough, 
.adding a little black if required. 

Matching stains are used in French polishing because 
light and dark places often occur in the best selected 
woods, and in stained work, owing to the difference 
in the direction of the grain. To tone or harmonize 
the entire surface to one uniform shade, is technically 
called matching or coloring up, and requires a little 
tact and a good eye for color. On large flat surfaces 
colored polish may be used with advantage, but for 
small work it would be better to take a small tuft of 
wadding and wet it with i part polish to 3 parts spirits. 
With this take up a little yellow ocher and just a trace 
of umber or Vandyke brown. Press the wadding well 
on the back of a piece of worn-out glass-paper to 
equalize, and mix well. Try the effect on an odd 
corner of the work; if too dark, thin out with spirits; 
if not dark enough, pick up more color, or wipe over 
twice. Having gained the right shade, apply lightly 
with a straight or wavy motion as required. This 
would cnablj one to match the oak, but any wood can 



iro THE UP-TO-DATE 

\)c matched by using suitable pigments, a red tinge 
being usually given by the addition of a few drops of 
Bismarck brown stain. Though it is possible to pro- 
ceed to polish direct, yet it would be safer to set the 
stain by giving a coat of thin spirit varnish, and allow 
this to get quite dry before polishing. In matching 
up satin walnut, the polisher must use judgment, for 
the work can hardly be regarded as mechanical. The 
stain must depend on the color or tint of the lighter 
parts, and of the darker parts to which they are to be 
matched. Generally a little weak brown stain will do 
what is required. When necessary, it can be altered 
slightly in color by the addition of other pigments, 
according to the tints desired. 

In matching, the wavy appearance of some woods 
may be given by a tremulous movement of the hand, 
and the mottled appearance of others by dabbing with 
a badger softener or clean, soft dusting brush while 
the color is still wet. Veins either black or red may 
be given by picking up a little dry black or red stain 
on the corner of the tuft of wadding and applying it 
carefully, taking some adjacent portion as a guide for 
pattern. For rosewood, red stain and dr)^ black may 
be used in combination; for birch or oak, use yellow 
ocher. When the work in hand is large, and requires 
staining all over, and it is not possible to gain the 
desired result by means of dyed polish applied with 
the rubber, the colors should be mixed in a pot with 
3 parts of spirit to i of polish, and applied with a 
camel-hair brush. The work is not so liable to get 
patchy with two or more coats of weak stain as with 
one strong one. 

After laying on the stain, allow a few minutes to 
elapse for it to set. then smooth down with a piece of 



HARDWOOD FINISHER in 

worn, fine glass-paper, and give a coat of thin brush 
polish or spirit varnish. This will set. the colors pre- 
vious to polishing, v^hich can be proceeded vv^ith in 
about ten minutes. Mahogany, rosewood, and walnut, 
if not inlaid, are generally improved by the use of a 
polish tinged by the addition of a little red stain. 
Other colors may also be mixed with polish to be 
applied with the rubber. When using these dyed 
polishes, cease when just the right tinge is attained; 
another rubber may be used to finish off with clear 
polish. 

In repolishing work, the foundation having been 
already laid, the polish is not required quite so thick 
as in polishing the bare wood. In the final stage, 
when finishing off, any trace of greasiness may be 
effectually removed by well rubbing with a swab of 
the clean, soft rag, fairly damp (not wet) with spirits, on 
face of which has been sprinkled a few drops of glaze. 

Colors in a dry state known as pigments, such as 
Venetian red, yellow ocher, vegetable black or lamp- 
black, umbers, Vandyke brown, chromes, orange and 
lemon, greens, blues, flake white, etc., are useful. By 
the aid of these, the polisher is enabled to match 
woods and restore faded polish, far more expeditiously 
than can be done by staining or using dyed polish or 
varnish. Work that might puzzle the inexperienced 
for hours can be done in a few minutes by a knowledge 
of the use of dry colors. They are used in some stains 
by mixing with ammonia, glue size, pearlash, soda, 
and they are used to color the "filling-in" of whiting 
and turps to make it match the various woods. 
Venetian red is used for mahogany, umber for walnut, 
black for ebony, and sometimes to give an appearance 
of age to oak by making the grain appear dirty. 



112 Tlir: UP-TO-DATE 

Sonictinu's llu; polisher has a job passed to him that, 
properly speaking;', oui^Hit to he done by the painter. 
The (jiiick-dryin^' nature of the soluti(jns of shellac, 
with which the polisher is the better acquainted, obtains 
for him the preference. For example, shields, etc., 
for the decorative purposes that may require five 
different colors and a coat of varnish, can be colored 
ready for fixing within twenty-four hours. To do this, 
lime blue, chrome yellow, vegetable black, flake white, 
and vermilionette or any other colors should be mixed 
with ordinary French polish to the consistency of 
thin paint, thinning out when necessary with alcohol 
spirits. Three coats of color can be laid on, stencil 
patterns cut and painted, borders and edges lined, and 
the whole finished with a coat of white hard varnish 
within twelve hours. To prevent the white getting a 
yellowish tinge, it is well to mix it with transparent 
polish made from white shellac. 

To make imitation marble which wears w^ell, give 
several coats of flake white mixed in polish; then put 
in the veins of blue or black with feathers, afterwards 
giving a coat of white thinned out with spirits. This 
has the effect of making the veining appear beneath 
the surface. When dry it is finished by giving a coat 
of good quality copal varnish. 

THE FINISHING OF VARIOUS WOODS 

*' It will be in order now to describe how to finis/. 
some of the more popular woods, in detail, though 
enough has been said in a general way to enable an}' 
workman to finish work in any wood made use of for 
building or decorative purposes, but a few lines 
devoted to some of our special woods may perhaps be 
of timely service to some owner of this \'olume. Oak, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 113 

being the most popular and at the same time the most 
durable and the most used of our woods, is deserving 
of the first place. 

Finishing Oak 

We have in this country over forty kinds of oak 
nearly every one of which may be used for some 
special purpose; those most used for building finish 
and for furniture, however, are only few, among which 
are the white oak [Qtcercus riilid), rock oak {Qriercus 
pritnas murticola) and black oak {Quercus tindoris). All 
of the above-named oaks are capable of being hand- 
somely finished, the white and black oaks being the 
best and the red being next. 

What is known as quarter oak is made by first saw- 
ing the log from end to end through the middle. 
Then each half is sawed from end to end through the 
middle, thus leaving four quarters. Each quarter has 
only three sides, one side the bulge part of the log, 
and the other two sides flat and coming to an edge. 
The boards are sawed off the sharp edge, and each 
sawing, therefore, throws off a board wider than the 
one before it. Sawing the quarters of the log in this 
manner, lumber possesses that beautiful cross-grained 
figure so much in fashion now that it has become 
somewhat of a craze. This cross-grained material finds 
favor in the finest furniture and interior work. The 
wood is susceptible of the very finest polish, and the 
cross-grain produces an effect made b)^ both nature 
and the saw, that is quite superior to the art of the 
most skillful grainer. To effect a good imitation of 
antique oak, lampblack or Vandyke brown in oil is 
applied to the surface of the wood, darkening its 
natural hue; but this is not by any means best or the 



114 THE UP-TO-DATE 

only way, but answers very well where other processes 
or methods are not available. With regard to giving 
oak an antique appearance, many opinions exist. 
Formerly — and probably the first — imitations of antique 
oak were produced by exposing the bare dressed surface 
to the steam of boiling ammonia. This process, how- 
ever, it was impossible to apply to casings of house 
interiors, thus leading to the application of the atjua 
ammonia with a brush, but it is b\^ repeated application 
lliat the desired results are produced. It stains the 
wood gray. Tlu^re arc finishers who claim this to be 
the only process by which to imitate Nature, but 
another, much faster and one which giv'es the same 
results, is to use strong vinegar with iron filings or 
shavings added; by a little experimenting this can be 
made to sufifice with one coat, depending upon the 
amount of iron added. 

A very clever imitation of the general antique can 
be obtained by staining the filler with Vandyke brown 
and charcoal, equal parts, using about I part of the 
colored to 4 parts of the light. Then there is another 
antique which imitates certain oak from the sixteenth 
century; the peculiarity of it consists in dark cloud 
streaks permeating the wood in every direction, some 
of them crossing the panels in a V-shape, others 
straight near top and bottom. To give them an odd 
appearance, a pair of panels can be clouded by 
streaking one three or four times and the other once or 
twice. These stripes vary in width from three to fi\e 
inches. The wider streaks look well across the top of 
a table three or four times, or even partly across, while 
the narrow ones would do well around the legs and 
across the styles and rails of paneled work. In 
putting these on, they "should be dark in the center and 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 115 

blend out at the edges. This is done with an automatic 
paint burner, allowing the flames to scorch the wood 
nearly black; but care must be taken not to char it. 
After the work is all streaked, the wood is filled with 
filler stained with burnt umber mixed as for black 
walnut. 

Care must be taken to have the filler stained to the 
proper tint, and in applying correctly. By following 
the rules given under the head "Filling'' the operator 
should have no trouble in making good work, and we 
here repeat the instruction. 

After enough surface has been covered with the 
filler, so that what has been first applied begins to 
.flatten, the process of wiping should immediately 
begin, using for that purpose either a rag or a handful 
of waste or excelsior.. If the oak is very open-grained, 
waste is preferable. With a piece of this that has 
previously been used and is pretty well supplied with 
filler, rub crosswise of the grain, rather rubbing it into 
the grain than wiping it off.- xA-fter the whole surface 
has been gone over in this way, take a clean piece of 
waste or rag (never use excelsior for wiping clean) and 
wipe the surface perfectly clean and free from filler, 
using a wooden pick, the point of which has been 
covered with a rag or waste, to clean out the corners, 
beads, etc. It is well to give these picks some atten- 
tion, as a person once accustomed to certain tools can 
accomplish more and better work than with tools that 
feel strange in his hands; therefore, each finisher 
should furnish his own pick. As to their construction, 
those are best made from second-growth hickory, 
which can be procured from any carriage repair shop, 
such as old spokes, broken felloes, etc. They are 
made eight inches in length, half inch oval at one end 



ii6 THE UP-TO-DATE 

and tapering down to the point at the other. Sharpen 
the oval end like a coal chisel, then smooth with 
sandpaper, which should also be used to sharpen the 
tool when the same becomes worn dull. 

This picking out of the filler from beads, etc., can 
be accelerated by the use of a picking brush manu- 
factured especially for that purpose, but it is not 
advisable to use this on very coarse-grained oak, as it 
scrubs the filler out of the pores. 

Oak may be fumigated by liquid ammonia, strength 
880°, which may be bought at any wholesale chemist's 
at $1.50 a gallon. The wood should be placed in didark 
and airtight room (in a big packing case, if )'ou like!), 
and half a pint or so of ammonia poured into a soup 
plate, and placed upon \.\\(t ground in the center of the 
compartment. This done, shut the entrance, and 
secure any cracks, if an\', by pasted slips of paper. 
Remember that the ammonia does not touch the oak, 
but the gas that comes from it acts in a wondrous 
manner upon the tannic acid in that wood, and browns 
it so deeply that a shaving or two may actually be 
taken off without removing the color. The depth of 
shade will entirel}' depend upon the quantity of 
ammonia used and the time the wood is exposed. Try 
an odd bit first experimentally, and then use your own 
judgment. 

Short pieces of stuff may be so treated by using an 
airtight box. The box ready, a flat dish or plate of 
strong ammonia should be placed in the bottom, so 
that the fumes will rise and surround the object. All 
that is now necessary is to place the article in the 
box, nailing up as close as possible, and await results. 
Ten hours'exposure, using strong ammonia, should give 
a good color; if not dark enough let it remain longer. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER ii; 

bearing in mind, howex^er, that the wood will present 
no noticeable change until oiled or brought in contact 
with a wet substance such as shellac. It is well, there- 
fore, to note the progress by touching the wood with 
the wet finger, when it will show at once the stage it 
has reached. 

There could be no better method devised to stain 
oak than this, when practicable, and in adopting it we 
simply anticipate nature, which, in time, through the 
action of the ammonia of the atmosphere, would 
present the same result. Mahogany may also be 
treated similarly with success. 

Here is another method of making antique oak, and 
it might be added that white, and black ash, and 
chestnut, similarly treated, will give a fair imitation of 
antique oak. The job should be made of hardwood, 
with as full an open grain as possible to secure a fine 
effect. Sandpaper this and clean off. Then prepare a 
priming made of i part japan, i part raw linseed oil 
and I part rubbing varnish. . Drop into ^ gal. of the 
liquid I lb. of commercial corn starch, such as is used 
for culinary purposes. Next take some good, dry, 
burnt Turkish umber, and add about ^ lb. of this to 
the starch. Apply to the job a good flowing coat of 
this priming. Let stand until it is set and has soaked 
well into the grain, and then take a broad putty knife 
and stick it into the grain, working the knife cross- 
wise of the grain. Again let stand a little while, and 
then wipe with rags; especially clean out all the 
corners, and get the job into as good condition as 
possible as regards having the grain well filled. 

Upon the completion of the operation above 
described it will be found that the open grain has 
absorbed the starch and umber, and that these 



Ji8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

|)orli()ns ik^w show the dark shade suggestive of age, 
while all the rest of the surface is also slightly 
darkened. 

When again perfectly dry, gi\e one coat of rubbing 
varnish, prepared by adding to it j^ lb. of starch to 
each gallon of varnish. This coat should be flowed on 
freely as a medium coat of rubbing varnish, but be 
careful not to have runs of sags. This ought to com- 
pletely fill the wood, after which proceed to varnish, 
rub and finish the job in the usual manner. To pro- 
duce a natural oak finish, follow precisely the same 
course as above described, with the single exception 
of omitting the umber. This will leave the wood in its 
natural color. 

Some of the most attractive work in this line, how- 
ever, is effected by simply spreading on the surface of 
the material a concentrated solution of permanganate 
of potash, this being allowed to act until the desired 
shade is obtained. Five minutes suffice ordinarily to 
give a good color, a few trials indicating the proper 
proportions. The substance named is decomposed by 
•the vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown 
peroxide of manganese, which the influence of the 
potash, at the same time set free, fixes in a durable 
manner on the fibers. When the action is terminated, 
the wood is carefully washed with w^ater, dried, then 
oiled and polished in the usual manner. The effect 
produced by this process in several woods is really 
remarkable. On the cherry especially it develops a 
beautiful red color which well resists the action of air 
and light, and on the other woods it has a \ery pleasing 
and natural effect. 

Along with the foregoing may be added the fallow- 
ing stains for oak: add to a quart of water 2 ounces 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 119 

each of potash and pearlash. This is a very good 
stain, but it should be used carefully, as it blisters the 
hands and softens brushes. The stain may be made 
lighter by adding more water. 

To Darken Oak. — To darken the color of oak, any of 
the following may be used: 

Liquid ammonia laid on evenly with a rag or brush 
will deepen the color immediately, and it will not fade, 
this being an artificial production of result produced 
naturally by age. 

Bichromate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and 
applied with a brush, will produce a similar result. 

A deqoction of green walnut-shell will bring new oak 
to any shade or nearly black. 

Another. — Two quarts of boiled oil; ^ lb. of ground 
umber, mixed in oil by colormari; i pint of liquid 
driers, stirred in; i pint of turpentine; mix. After 
cleaning and planing your boards, lay this on with the 
grain of the wood. If required lighter, add naphtha 
till the required shade is attained; it darkens with age. 
Give it twelve hours to dry; then varnish with wood 
varnish, or use only beeswax and turpentine. The 
result is good in time, but slower than varnish. 

Oak can be fumigated, by making a tent of some 
cheap oil cloth, which may be rigged up over a rough 
wooden frame. Of course, the tent must be made 
pretty tight. Don't let the frame touch the work, and 
when complete, cut a small piece that you can lift up 
and use as a peep hole. Then get a saucer full of 
liquid ammonia and place inside the tent — anywhere 
on the floor will do. Close the tent and await results. 
The more ammonia used the darker it gets, so you 
must use your peep hole and suit yourself. If you 
wish to polish it, give it a coat of beeswax and turpen- 



120 THE UP-TO-DATK 

tine, let dry, and then brush or rub it well. For a dull 
polish, give it a coat of raw linseed oil, dry well, and 
then brush up. By "fumigation" you always get a 
good even tone; but, failing this, you can stain the 
work, and b)' simple means. Buy a little per- 
manganate of potash at the chemist's, dissolve in 
water, and put on with a brush; when dry, give another 
coat if not dark enough. Another method is to get ^ 
lb. of black japan and dissolve in Yo pint of turpen- 
tine, and appl\' as before, or you can buy the stain 
ready-made; and the walnut water stain — not varnish 
stain — is a good one to make a dark brown oak color. 
If you find the stain brings up the grain — i.e., makes 
the wood rough — rub it down with fine sandpaper and 
stain again, but rub off fairly dry. All these are 
simple methods, which you could easily acquire. 

Styles of Oak Finish. — As oak in its many and varied 
finishes is so very fashionable just now, an explanation 
of the effects of the se\'eral stains may be of interest, 
as so man)' of them are so closely allied as to confuse 
the uninitiated. Bog oak is a thin stain of medium 
color, giving quarter-sawed oak a slight tinge of green. 
It is about the same density as weathered oak, but of 
a green tone instead of brown, like weathered oak. 
Weathered oak is of a brown tone in close imitation of 
the rich old hue taken on by oak through time or from 
exposure to the weather. Antwerp oak is also brown, 
but of a deeper shade, producing an attractive antique 
effect. Black Flemish is a much-admired finish, 
especially wh(Mi it is desired to produce an effect of 
great weight. It gives a piece of furniture a sub- 
stantial appearance. Its black tone combines 
admirably with red wall covering and hangings. 
Brown Flemish is not unlike Antwerp, but of a much 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 121 

stronger brown tone. This is one of the most popular 
stains of the hour. It is quite permanent and produces 
a very artistic effect. The so-called gun-metal finish 
for oak is not unlike black Flemish, but gives a tinge 
of blue instead of deep black. Malachite, although 
light green, is not too intrusive. This is affected by 
many people of good taste and is quite popular, 
especially for staining ash. Tyrolean oak is as dark as 
black Flemish or bog oak, and is of a green tinge, 
instead of the blue of the gun-metal finish. 

Golden Oak is very fashionable, being a brownish 
color with a sort of golden glow tint; it may b(^ 
obtained as follows: Golden oak finish is not produced 
by the filler alone; in fact, the filler has very little to 
do with the result. The wood must be stained before 
it is filled, and, of course, the filler must be so colored 
or stained as not to mar or dull the effect. A mixture 
of gold size japan and genuine asphaltum varnish in 
about equal parts, thinned with turpentine, makes a 
good stain that will not raise the grain of the wood, 
dries quickly and hard, and, if wiped out properly, 
gives under varnish a rich effect, termed "golden," for 
want of another appropriate name. 

To make a filler, mix one-third each of raw linseed 
oil, japan gold size and turpentine, and put into this 
mixture enough finely powdered silica or silex to make 
a stiff paste, and color this with burnt umber in oil, 
Vandyke brown in oil and a trifle of drop black to suit, 
being mindful that in golden oak only the high lights 
are yellowish brown, while the filled grain is decidedly 
dark. The mixture should be run through a handmill. 
The best plan for you is to buy your golden oak paste 
filler, or at least buy the light paste filler and color it 
to suit your taste; for you cannot buy the raw material 



122 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



as cheap as the manufacturer, and making it in a small 
way will cost you more in the long run. 

Another method, if the work is new, is as follows: 
Fuming is only possible when the articles are new and 
free from varnish, polish, glue, or marks of handling. 
The process consists of enclosing the articles — from 
which the glass and all brass fittings are removed — in 
an airtight room or box, on the floor or bottom of 
which are placed a number of shallow dishes contain- 
ing strong liquid ammonia. The depth of color 
depends on the length of exposure, which may vary 
from twelve to thirty-six hours. Where this process 
is not practicable, the next best method is staining. 
The stain must be weak, the exact color required being 
afterwards obtained by the use of a polish made from 
orange shellac and a trace of color in the varnish. A 
suitable stain may be made by dissolving ^ oz. of 
bichromate of potash in i^ pt. of water. To prevent 
the work coming up rough on the application of the 
water stain, the work should be first wiped over with 
raw linseed oil. The stain must be liberally applied, 
and rubbed well in with a rag, finishing off always in the 
direction of the grain. Before starting on the work, 
experiment on odd pieces of similar wood. 

Flemish Oak. — To make a stain for Flemish oak, 
y? lb. of bichromate of potash, dissolved in i gal. of 
water. Coat woodwork. When dry, sandpaper down 
smooth; then coat with best drop black, ground in 
japan, thinned with turpentine. Let stand fi\e minutes 
and wipe off clean, then coat with pure grain shellac 
and sandpaper with No. o sandpaper; then coat with 
beeswax, i lb. to a gallon of turpentine, %, lb. of drop 
black mixed in the wax, then wipe off clean with 
cheese cloth. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 123 

Weathered Oak. — Give woodwork one coat of strong- 
ammonia. When dry, sandpaper down smooth and 
stain it from the following colors: lampblack, ochei 
and 2 lbs. of silica to a gallon of stain. Wipe off 
with cheese cloth, then give one coat of pure grain 
shellac, then sandpaper and give one coat of wax and 
wipe off clean. If you should desire a brownish shade, 
put I oz. of bichromate of potash and ammonia, or if a 
greenish shade, put some green and stain. 

Verde, or Green Finish. — One ounce of nigrocene 
dissolved in Y^ gal. of water. Give woodwork one 
coat; when dr)^ sandpaper, care to be taken not to rub 
off edges; then fill with a bright green filler, with some 
white lead in the filler. When thoroughly dry,* give 
one coat of pure grain shellac and then wax, or it could 
be finished with three coats of varnish and rubbed. 
This finish leaves the pores of bright green color, 
while the rest of the wood is almost black. 

Black Oak. — One ounce of nigrocene to ^ gal. of 
water. Give woodwork one coat, then fill with a black 
filler, then one coat of shellac and three coats of 
varnish rubbed with pumice-stone and water, then oil 
and wipe off clean. 

Austrian Oak. — Fill with a light antique filler, 
colored with raw umber. Give two very thin coats of 
shellac, colored with nigrocene and yellow to the 
desired shade, then sandpaper down and wax and wipe 
off clean. 

Red Oak is a difficult wood to stain or fumigate, but 
it may be done as follows: Make a stain by mixing 
ground dry Dutch pink (this color is yellow) and a 
little dry drop black, with beer, and apply with a hog's 
hair brush. Try the stain on a piece of red oak, and 
get the e?iact sh^cje if possible, taking care that you 



124 TIIK IP -TO -DATE 

do not stain quite as dark as the fumigated parts. 
When dry, oil with linseed oil, and make a weak 
stain, using the same colors, mixed with alcohol, with 
enough button polish to bind the color. Lay on 
carefully with a camel-hair brush. It is better to give 
two coats of weak stain, as the result will be a more 
even color. When dry, wax polished this will make a 
good job. 

Oak Staining Generally. — There is no wood which 
may be treated in so many different ways as oak. It 
may be left in its natural state, or it may be oiled, or 
wax polished, or French polished in its natural color. 
It can be stained and waxed, stained and French 
polistied in a variety of colors or tints, with the grain 
opened or filled, and it can also be fumigated. For bed- 
room furniture, if the wood is carefully selected, a 
very pleasing effect is obtained by waxing or French 
polishing it in its natural color, or slightly stained and 
polished with the grain open or filled, according to 
taste. Dining-room or library finish is generally 
stained a medium color or fumigated. All furniture 
is frequently stained very dark, and polished with the 
grain open. 

If it is desired that the work should be finished in its 
natural color, fill in with Russian tallow and plaster of 
Paris, and polish with white polish. If it is required 
to be slightly tinted, stain the filler with yellow ocher 
and polish with button polish. For staining, the best 
stains to use are the powdered water stains, and some 
very effective tints may be obtained by carefully 
mixing green and brown stains together; apply the 
stain with a hog's hair brush, and if the grain should 
rise quickly, rub down with ly^ glass-paper before 
laying off the stain. When the stain is dry, oil with 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 125 

linseed oil, then give a coat of polish to fix the stain. 
It may then be polished with the grain open, and 
finished with a wet rubber, using no spirits. If a level 
surface is required, it must be carefully filled in, and 
not unduly hurried in the polishing. The latter 
applies to oak generally, as the wood is coarse, and 
consequently sinks a great deal. 

A good dark oak stain may be made as follows: 
Dissolve I oz. of bichromate of potash in ^ pint of 
water, and i oz. of potash in ^ pint of water. When 
each are separately dissolved, mix together, and add 
dry powdered Vandyke brown. If a very dark color is 
required, add also a little powdered drop black; apply 
with a hog's hair brush, and polish as before stated. 
As sometimes the American potash varies in strength, 
the hair of the brush will curl up if it is too strong. If 
this occurs, add a little more water. Oak carvings 
give a much nicer appearance always if the grain is 
left open, even when the other parts are filled up. If 
they are stained, oil and afterwards give a coat of 
polish to fix the stain. When this is dry, brush well 
with a stiff-haired brush and rub with a dry cloth. It 
is sometimes advisable to oil oak before it is stained, 
as it often prevents the grain rising. The only dis- 
advantage is that a little extra labor is required to 
make the stain bite. 

Fumigated Oak. — The best kinds of oak for fumigating 
are the English wainscot, or Baltic. The red Ameri- 
can oak does not fumigate well. The advantages of 
fumigating are that a more natural color is obtained 
than by staining. The wood is not made rough by 
the operation, and there is also a great saving in 
labor. The best method of fumigating is to construct 
an airtight chamber, lined with wood, and the joints 



126 THE UP-TO-DATE 

of the wood made airtight by pasting paper over them. 
If the chamber is of the following dimensions it will 
be found large enough for most purposes: length, 9 ft.; 
width, 4 ft.; height, 6 ft. Portable inner frames may 
be made with shutters, so that the size of the chamber 
may be made smaller if necessary. The door should 
have glass panels; this will permit of the work being 
watched, and when the wood ha5 become dark enough, 
the door should be opened. Articles to be fumigated 
should have all brass work removed; then place in the 
chamber in such a position as to allow a free passage 
for the fumes to get at all parts of the wood. Then 
place half a dozen saucers (flower-pot saucers will 
answer for this purpose) on the floor at equal distances, 
and pour into each saucer }^ lb. of spirits of ammonia, 
strength of the ammonia to be 880°, then paper over 
the joints round the door. The wood will darken 
much quicker in hot weather. If a very dark color is 
required, it may be necessary to recharge the chamber 
after twenty-four hours, but a good color is generally 
obtained in about five hours. It should be noted that 
the work always becomes lighter after it is taken out 
of the fumigating chamber. Consequently, the work 
must be proceeded with directly it is taken out. If 
any parts are too dark, do not oil them; all other 
parts should be at once oiled, and given a coat of 
polish. When dry, paper well with No. i glass-paper, 
and wax polish or French polish with the grain open, 
as in the case of stained dark oak. Small articles 
may be fumigated by making a box airtight, and 
placing a piece of felt upon a level floor; stand the 
articles to be fumigated on the felt, and fill one 
saucer with ^ lb. spirits of ammonia. Then cover 
the whole with the box, and place a weight on the top 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 127 

of the box; this will prevent the fumes from escaping. 
It may be raised occasionally to see how the work is 
proceeding. This plan will answer better than if there 
is a lid to the box, as the fumes will not escape so 
much in this way. 

Great care must be taken when using the ammonia, 
and the operator must particularly avoid inhaling the 
fumes. A good rule when charging a large chamber 
for fumigating is to have some one at hand in case of 
any accident, such as the breakage of the vessel con- 
taining the ammonia. Before the work is taken out of 
the chamber the fumes must be allowed to pass off by 
opening the door for a few minutes before entering. 
If this rule is carried out, no possible harm can 
happen. 

Pollard oak is best treated by first oiling it, and then 
applying a coat of button polish. When the polish is 
dry, it must be rubbed down with No. I glass-paper 
and waxed or French polished. As sometimes pollard 
oak has very large cracks on the surface, these must 
be well stopped with wax stopping, which must be 
stained to match the wood. Before proceeding to wax 
or French polish, if the joints do not match in color, a 
little polish stain may be applied with a camel-hair 
pencil before it is polished. 

For Removing Polish and Restaining Oak. — Saturate 
table with alcohol, keep it wet with it, and whilst wet 
scrape off polish which will have become softened. If 
legs are turned, or on shaped edges, etc., where 
scraper cannot be used, coarse sandpaper (Middle 2) 
will remove polish. Use plenty of spirit and sand- 
paper all over, and take care all polish is removed. It 
can be done in same way with potash — a slower proc- 
ess, and the potash will also burn anything it touches, 



128 THE UP-TO-DATE 

but will stain the wood at the same time. When all 
polish is removed, the table can be stained dark with 
ivahmt ivatcr stain. When wood is well stained in 
pores, wipe off with cloth and let dry; if not dark 
enough, give another coat. Another stain is made 
with turps and black japan, well mixed. A little 
Prussian blue powder will make either stain a green\' 
brown. For polishing, rub in raw linseed oil; let dry, 
and rub again; or for wax polish, melt beeswax on slow 
heat in a galley pot; add turpentine, about a third 
part; let cool. Wax should be soft as paste; if sticky, 
add turps; rub well into wood. Let dry and rub again 
for polish. Stain must be quite dry before oil or wax 
is put on. 

To Finish Cherry 

Cherry {Prii?ius cerasus). — This is a fine-grained 
wood, tough and light; is capable of taking the very 
finest finish. Is harder than baywood, and is a nearer 
approach in color, grain and texture, to mahogany 
than any other native wood. 

One of the best methods for making cherry look like 
mahogany is to have the wood rubbed with diluted 
nitric acid, which prepares it for the materials sub- 
sequently applied. Afterwards to a filtered mixture 
of i^ oz. of dragons' blood dissolved in a pint of 
spirits of wine is aded one-third that quantity of 
carbonate of soda. The whole, constituting a very thin 
liquid, is brushed with a soft brush over the wood. 
This process is repeated with very little alteration, 
and in a short interval of time the wood assumes the 
external appearance of mahogany. If the composition 
has been properly made the surface will resemble an 
artificial mirror, and should this brilliancv ever decline 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 129 

it may be restored by rubbing the surface with a little 
cold drawn linseed oil. 

When cherry is nicely filled and rubbed well down 
and not varnished, it has a soft glow not possessed by 
any other, and has none of those distortions of grain 
that are so unpleasant in mahogany. The timber is 
chosen from the wild cherry, which in New England 
and the North generally does not usually grow to a 
girth of more than 20 inches, but in some of the 
Western States and in the South frequently attains a 
diameter of 24 inches. The domestic fruit cherry 
gives some good specimens of small timber, but as the 
tree is rarely sacrificed until it is past bearing and is 
decayed, this source of supply is precarious. The 
facility with which cherry can be worked makes it a 
favorite with the cabinetmaker and the house-joiner; 
and it also possesses the quality of "staying where it 
is put," and that is more than can be said of many of 
the hardwoods. 

I give below several stains for making pine and 
other suitable woods to have an appearance of 
cherry. 

1. To prepare this color in water stain, boil in a 
gallon of water i lb. of Spanish annotto and i oz. of 
concentrated lye (potash). Should this not be deep 
enough, allow the water to evaporate by a gentle heat. 
The stain can also be darkened by adding gamboge 
previously dissolved in a weak potash solution. 

2. Gamboge in oil, diluted with turpentine, and a 
little japan added as a siccative. This produces the 
same color in oil as the former in water stain, and can 
be deepened with dragons' blood in oil or finely 
ground burnt sienna in oil. 

3. Mix together, by stirring, i qt. of spirits of 



130 THE UP-TO-DATE 

turpentine, i pt. of \arnish, ancl i 11). of dry burnt 
sienna; apply with a brush and after it has been on 
about five minutes wipe it off with rags. This stain 
takes about twelve hours to dry. 

4. Take i qt. alcohol, 2 oz. of dragons' blood; 
pulverize the latter along with ]^ oz. of alkanet root; 
mix and let stand in a warm place a couple of days. 
Shake frequently in the meantime. Apply with a 
sponge or brush. Two or three coats may be required. 
This makes a fine stain. 

To finish cherry, the first and a very important 
thing to do is to give the wood a thorough sandpaper- 
ing, to remove finger and other marks, and make a 
perfect surface to receive the stain. Next comes the 
dusting off of the work, which also should be carefully 
done, as specks of dust or dirt will cause bad work. 
Stain should be put on with a four-inch oval brush, one 
set with cement. Apply the stain freely, but do not 
work it too much, as this would cause it to froth, 
forming specks. Have the stain in a wooden, earthen 
or enameled vessel, as metal will often alter the color 
of the stain. Avoid laps when staining; do a section 
at a time. But should a lap be unavoidable, then take 
a sponge, wet with clear water, and wet that part of 
the work already done and adjoining that which is to 
be done, and then at once apply the stain. Have a 
bucket of water and a sponge ready at hand. Any 
part of the work taking too dark may be toned down 
by means of the wet or damp sponge, causing it to 
match the other and lighter work. Allow the stain to 
dry thoroughly, after which it is ready for sandpaper- 
ing with 000 paper. Next give a coat of shellac. 
Finish with two coats of varnish, or with three coats 
for extra fine finish. Rub with pumice-stone and 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 131 

water, polish with rotten stone and water, and clean 
up with furniture polish. 

Oil stains were formerly used, but aniline stains give 
much better color effects. Aniline stains may be 
bought ready prepared. 

When sandpapering cherry be sure that you do not 

cut through, as it would show up white. Cutting 

through is liable to occur about mouldings, edges, etc. 

Use old, worn sandpaper there; for the more sunken 

parts redampen and rub the layers of paper from the 

back of old sandpaper, which will make it very pliable 

and soft. 

Finishing Black Birch 

Birch. — Betula Nigra or Canadian birch is superior to 
all other birches for constructive purposes, and when 
properly finished has a fine, quiet, refined look that 
commends itself to all lovers of domestic woods. 

Black birch is a close-grained, handsome wood, and 
can be easily stained to resemble walnut exactly. It 
is just as easy to work, and is suitable for nearly, if not 
all, the purposes to which walnut is applied. Birch is 
much the same color as cherry, but the latter wood is 
now scarce, and consequently dear. When properly 
stained it is almost impossible to distinguish the 
difference between it and walnut, or cherry, as it is 
susceptible of a beautiful polish, equal to any wood 
now used in the manufacture of furniture and inside 
finishings. 

To finish to represent mahogany, coat with a weak 
solution of bichromate of potash, then stain with rose 
pink, Vandyke brown and burnt sienna; then shellac, 
with a little Bismarck brown dissolved in the shellac. 
This makes a better stain and more lasting than a 
water stain. 



132 THE UP-TO-DATE 

There is a species of bird's-eye birch, but it is very 
scarce. An evidence of the weight and solidity of the 
wood is the fact that it will sink after being a few 
days on the water. It also possesses the quality of 
durability in a preeminent degree. 

Birch is generally finished the same as cherry, and 
directions given under that head will apply here also. 

Finishing Mahogany 

Mahogany, cherry and black birch require about the 
same treatment, though there are some features in 
mahogany that differ a trifle from the other two woods. 
There is little or no grain markings in cherry or birch, 
while Spanish mahogany may be marked and penciled 
over its whole face; and the texture of the woods is very 
different to the touch. 

Mahogany {Svietened). — The tree has a darkish-brown 
bark and a reddish-brown, coarsely fibered, streaky, 
hard wood. The tree grows to the height of 35 meters, 
and is pretty strong. Among the chief varieties is the 
common mahogany, with a very hard, very durable 
wood, which is never attacked by worms, and is 
excellent for ship-building; but its capability for 
taking a fine polish is its chief recommendation. 
Mahagofii Haiti, MaJiagoni Jamaika, Mahagoiii Havanna 
are the other chief kinds. 

With perhaps the exception of our oaks, no wood 
possesses like advantages of combined soundness, 
large size, durability, beauty of color and richness of 
figure. So, when compared with other woods, 
mahogany costs no more to work and stands better 
than any other— the only point to weigh against this 
last great feature is the slight difference in the first 
cost of the wood in the rough; but if mahogany stands 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 133 

better and longer, and needs no attention afterwards, 
surely the sole advantage of less cost at first which any 
other wood may possess is overcome. 

But another merit, equal to any thus far mentioned, 
is the warmth in its color and the glory in the figure of 
this beautiful wood. The air of elegance, artistic 
effect and gentle breeding it imparts to all its sur- 
roundings, its joy and life — all these cannot be 
measured by a few cents a square foot. Its growing 
splendor with age that gives increasing satisfaction 
may safely be contrasted with the tameness of other 
woods, which, though pleasing at first, deteriorate 
rather than improve. 

When the real wood is used, but little more is 
necessary than to fill and varnish or polish, as it can- 
not be much improved upon. Sometimes, however, it 
may be deemed proper to darken it somewhat to take 
away the reddish hue that newly wrought mahogany 
presents, and this can best be done by darkening the 
filler, to suit the taste, trying the mixture fir^t on a 
piece of the dressed stuff, until the desired shade is 
obtained. Staining the varnish or polish with dragons' 
blood or other suitable dyes, will also accomplish the 
desired end. 

Staining by the fumes of ammonia will probably 
give the best results, as almost any tinge can be given 
the work, from the newness of youth to the mellow- 
ness of extreme age. This method is considered the 
best for imparting to mahogany the appearance of age, 
and for those wishing to avail themselves of an easy, 
clean and certain means of gaining the result, fumi- 
gating offers no serious obstacle to its accomplishment, 
the articles necessary being easy of acquirement, and 
at small expense. 



134 THE UP-TO-DATE 

To darken niahogan\', wash it with very weak lime 
water, which allow to (lr\' thoroughly. This gives a 
rich red color, more closely matching old mahogany 
than any other stain that can be used. 

Antique mahogany may be obtained as follows: 
Take one-third linseed oil, two-thirds turpentine; coat 
woodwork and wipe off clean. When thoroughly 
dry, coat with bichromate of potash; then fill with a 
dark, rich filler; then shellac and give three coats of 
varnish and rub with pumice-stone and water, then oil 
and wipe off clean. If an extra good job is required, 
give woodwork one heavy coat of polishing varnish 
after being rubbed in water; then rub again in water 
and polish. In finishing mahogany, some put on the 
bichromate of potash without oiling, but they do not 
get as good a color. All mahogany should be oiled 
first, unless you want a very light color; then it should 
have a thin coat of shellac first. 

In repolishing and reviving old work, first clean off 
all dust from the corners and rebates, then wipe all 
the polished portions with warm water and soda, and 
allow them to dry. Mahogany treated with spirit 
varnish is seldom satisfactory, but it is one of the 
best woods known for showing the fine effects of 
French polishing. Couch legs and chair turnings are 
generally bodied up with the brush, and finished with 
the rubber. If the surface is in fair condition after 
washing, no filling will be required; a rubber of good 
French polish worked out dry with spirit, and after- 
wards spirited out, or glazed, will give the desired 
result, if properly done. The polish will require 
staining with a little Bismarck brown or brown 
aniline dye, to brighten up the color. It would be a 
great advantage, and well worth the outlay, to put 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 135 

fresh gimp or leather banding round the borders; but 
this should not be done until the show-wood portions 
are repolished. 

Walnut Finishing 

Walnut {Juglans Nigra). — As this wood is seldom or 
never stained, it is unnecessary to say more about it 
other than it may be treated like oak, cherry or birch. 
It looks well filled and finished in shellac. Birch 
stained and properly finished looks very much like 
walnut, and with a little care in getting a proper tint in 
the stain, can scarcely be known from the real thing. 
"Filling," in walnut finishing, is one of the most 
important processes; if the richness of the wood is 
desired to be shown, as much depends on the "tint'' as 
on the filling material. 

Ordinary whitewood can be given the appearance of 
black walnut by first thoroughly drying the wood and 
then washing two or three times with a strong aqueous 
solution of extract of walnut peel. When nearly dry, 
the wood thus treated is washed over with a solution 
made of one part (by weight) of bichromate of potash 
in five parts of boiling water. After drying thoroughly, 
rub and polish. 

A number of recipes for making and applying stains 
to imitate walnut are given elsewhere in this volume, 
which see. 

Regarding Cypress 

Cypress {Cupressus sempervierens) . — The light, the 
dark and the bald are good woods and are coming 
more and more into favor every day. 

This wood contains a very small amount of resin, 
and a very high polish can be given it; in fact, because 
of its not being affected by moisture, it is being used 



136 THE UP-TO-DATE 

for cisterns, hogsheads, and sugar, molasses and honey 
barrels. The red cypress is the favorite, and some of 
it is so heavy that it will sink upon being placed in 
water. The white variety is much lighter, and will 
float after being deadened a short while before being 
cut, but it has not the firm grain of the red. The red 
cypress has a straight trunk with a small top, and the 
bark when cut has a reddish tint. These woods may 
be treated like cherry or birch with good results. 
They look well when left their natural color and 
finished "dead finish.'' 

Concerning the use of cypress for inside finish, it is 
all right if properly dried, prepared and put in place, 
but dry it must be, and there will be no trouble with 
its staying in place or shrinking any more than any 
other kind of wood. It may-be remarked, however, 
that cypress is an exceedingly hard wood to thoroughly 
dry, but for a low-cost material there is nothing to 
equal it in appearance. Get good, even-colored 
cypress, finish it well and some people could not tell it 
from red birch. If one cares to have it stained, it takes 
first rate. In finishing up cypress, the painters' work 
is the most difficult, for if the proper materials are not 
put on the grain is very liable to rise, which will 
spoil the good effect and will show even after being 
rubbed down. It is susceptible of a very high polish, 
and when finished in the natural color of the wood is 
very handsome. It is used by architects as a basis for 
the ivory white finish many people fancy, but in any 
event the wood when used for interiors possesses too 
much natural beauty to cover it with paint. 

As cypress costs less than any other suitable wood 
for exterior work, it is not only more durable, but it 
will take paint better than other woods, and the paint 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 137 

will not peel off. We have seen buildings shingled 
with cypress upon both roof and walls upon which no 
stain or paint had been used. In time such buildings 
take on the beautiful gray color which is so greatly 
admired by many people, especially for a country or 
suburban residence. The natural qualities of the wood 
make it possible to use either shingles or clapboards in 
this way without paint, and there is probably no other 
wood upon which vines can be grown with so much 
safety from injurious effects. 

Cypress, viewed from the standpoint of the finisher, 
is no less remarkable than when viewed from almost 
every standpoint. There is no wood which can be 
finished more economically, or which is more sus- 
ceptible to the finer handiwork of the finisher and 
polisher. If the work is properly done, the result will 
be satisfactory in either case. It is true, notwithstand- 
ing, that the fine natural appearance of cypress is often 
greatly marred or even ruined by faulty methods of 
treatment, and for that reason care should be exercised 
in finishing it. The best results are obtained through 
the use of pure grain alcohol white shellac, which 
should be purchased of a thoroughly responsible 
dealer. Better results can be obtained from this quality 
of shellac than from the more expensive "refined 
shellac,'' so called. 

Cypress requires no filling or sealing, and, if it is 
desired to permanently preserve the natural color of 
the wood, no oil or oily substance should be applied 
until the final rubbing down after the wood is well 
protected with shellac. We recommend three or more 
coats of shellac, as may be desired, each coat to be 
smoothed down with fine sandpaper, while the final 
coat may be rubbed down with pumice-stone and oil 



138 THE UP-TO-DATE 

to produce a dead finish, or what is sometimes termed 
"egg shell" finish. The final coat may be left bright, 
if preferred, or after rubbing down to a dead finish it 
may be given a French polish, according to the usual 
methods. 

Cypress will take stains well, but we have never 
favored the staining of the wood or the use of any 
color whatever in the finish of it, for it is far too hand- 
some to disguise in any way. 

Rosewood 

Rosewood {Dalbcrgia Nigra). — It seldom falls to the 
lot of the ordinary finisher to have to "try his hand" 
on the genuine wood, but sometimes it does Jiappen and 
it is just as well that he should be armed with the means 
to wrestle with the work if such is ever thrown in his 
way. To finish rosewood requires about the same 
treatment as mahogany, though, as a matter of fact, 
many pieces of rosewood will be found to have a coarser 
grain than mahogany, and will require much care in 
filling. The main thing to be observed is to see that 
the filling is a shade or two darker than the wood to be 
filled, before any varnish is laid on. For imitation of 
rosewood I give below a few recipes: 

Take y^ lb. of logwood, boil it with 3 pints of water 
till it is of a 't^ery dark red, to which add about half 
an ounce of salt of tartar. When boiling hot, stain 
your wood with two or three coats, taking care that 
it is nearly dry between each; then, with a stiff, flat 
brush, such as is used for graining, make streaks with 
a very deep black stain, w^hich if carefully executed 
will be very near the appearance of dark rosewood. 
The following is another method: Stain your wood 
all over with a black stain, and when dry, with a brush 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 139 

as above dipped in the bright liquid, form real veins in 
imitation of the grain of rosewood, which will produce, 
when well managed, a beautiful effect. A handy brush 
for the purpose of graining may be made by taking a 
flat brush, such as used for varnishing, and cutting the 
sharp points of the hairs and making the edge irregular; 
by cutting out a few hairs here and there the grain may 
be imitated with great accuracy. 

This is suitable to pine, cedar, cypress, whitewood, 
basswood, while the following should only be used in 
mahogany, cherry, or birch: Spread on the surface of 
the material a concentrated solution of hypermanganate 
of potassa, to act until the desired shade is obtained. 
Five minutes suffice, ordinarily, to give a deep color, 
a few trials indicating the proper proportions. The 
hypermanganate of potassa is decomposed by the 
vegetable fiber, with the precipitation of brown per- 
oxide of manganese, while the influence of the potassa, 
at the same time set free, fixes in a durable manner 
the fibers. When the action is terminated the wood is 
carefully washed with water, dried, and then oiled and 
polished in the usual manner. The effect produced 
by this process in several woods is really remarkable. 

It has been a mystery to many people why the dark 
wood so highly prized for furniture is called "rose- 
wood." Its color certainly does not look much like a 
rose, so we must look for some other reason. It is 
claimed by some that when 'the tree is first cut the 
wood possesses a very strong rose-like fragrance, hence 
the name. This is the most probable reason for its 
name. There are about a half dozen kinds of rose- 
wood trees. The varieties are found in South America, 
and in the East Indies and neighboring islands. 
Sometimes the trees grow so large that boards or 



140 thp: up-to-date 

planks four feet broad and ten feet in length can be 
cut from them. The broad boards are used for the 
tops of pianofortes. When growing in the forests 
the tree is remarkable for its beauty, but such is its 
value in manufacturing as an ornamental wood, that 
some of the forests where it once grew abundantly 
now have scarcely a single specimen left. 

To repolish old work, such as a rosewood piano or 
similar articles, the following method maybe adopted: 

As a rule, polished rosewood pianos are no^ easily 
kept in good condition; constant cleaning and an 
occasional polishing are required, especially in the 
case of pianos that are faced with genuine rosewood 
veneer, which has a coarse, open grain, and is of a 
somewhat oily nature. Sometimes the grain-filler 
that is used by the polishers will ooze out and cause 
an uneven surface. Plaster of Paris sometimes forms 
the basis of a filling, and this is apt to work out white, 
and becomes more apparent as the dye that has been 
used to enrich the color of the polish fades away 
through exposure to strong sunlight. It must not be 
forgotten that many so-called rosewood pianos are not 
faced with genuine rosewood veneer; the more correct 
term to apply to such pianos is "rosewood finish." 
The method by which this finish is obtained depends 
largely on the value of the instrument. In most cases 
the object of the maker is to impart a uniform color 
(frequently called chippendale) to the wood, and in 
order to obtain this end much coloring matter is 
used; such an excessive use of color has a tendency 
to destroy or imperil the nature of the polish, and 
accounts for much of the dullness, unexen surface, or 
variations of color that are more noticeable on some 
parts of the instrument than on other parts. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 141 

Finishing Redwood 

Redwood, as a wood to hold its place after worked, 
has no equal. The shrinkage between green and 
bone-dry is very little, and after it has been ordinarily 
seasoned the shrinkage is very little. It does not keep 
growing a little narrower every year, as a white pine 
board sometimes does; consequently all tendency to 
warping and twisting is done away with. 

As a finishing wood for interior house finish in the 
natural color it has no superior among the long list of 
American woods. It is, however, quite necessary that 
the work be properly done; the main point to be 
observed in finishing in natural color is to avoid the 
use of linseed oil, as it stains the wood a dingy color. 
The best finishers on this coast invariably use shellac 
for filler, applied rather thin, so that the wood will 
absorb it and thereby make a hard surface, which 
protects the wood from bruising, and for last coat use 
the best grade of shellac or hard oil. 

For an Egg-Shell Gloss. — One coat of orange shellac, 
sandpapered to a smooth surface, 'followed by two or 
three coats of Berry Brothers' (white or light) hard oil 
finish; rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled hair, 
and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone and 
raw linseed oil. 

For a Dull Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, in- 
stead of oil. 

For a Polished Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
iov 3. pia7io fi?iish s^Qz'iiy ^ further rubbing with Berry 
Brothers' furniture polish, used with a little pulverized 
rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel. 



142 THE UP-TO-DATE 

If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifica- 
tions for rubbing the last coat. 

White *Pine Finishing 

Pine {Finns Strobiis). — If oak is the king of woods, 
pine is most assuredly "president," for it is at once 
the most useful and th,e most democratic of woods. It 
is found in the halls of the great and powerful, and in 
the cottage of the most humble among us. It is 
strong and vigorous, plain or ornamental, and is not 
out of place either in the backwoodsman's cabin or in 
the stately cathedral, and like a true man of the world, 
it adapts itself to every condition that circumstances 
may place it in. 

Pine can be made to look like any known wood, but 
is at its best when left natural and finished in clear 
shellac. There is no wood grows, that will convey so 
cheerful a feeling to the beholder as yellow or white 
pine finished in a natural state. Next to being finished 
in a natural state, is to imitate mahogany or light 
cherry, which coloring it takes readily. 

Where the pine — of any kind — is to be either stained 
or left natural, it should be "quarter sawed," as it will 
show a finer grain, shrink less, and last longer. The 
softness of its texture and its susceptibility to injury 
may have had some influence in preventing its general 
use for ornamental purposes, but the wood can be 
"filled," so that much of this objection is removed. 

Most of the stains given under previous heads are 
applicable to pine. I add, however, a few more, so 
that the workmen may have a number of recipes to 
draw from. 

For Walnut. — i. Dissolve by boiling i part each of 
Epsom salt and permanganate of potash in about 25 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 143 

parts of water. This stain maybe improved by adding 
a little eosine, and it works best when applied hot. 

2. Catechu broken into crumbs and boiled in about 
twice its bulk of water until dissolved. To darken to 
the required depth, add bichromate of potash pre- 
viously dissolved in about eight times its equivalent 
of water. If the deep yellow shade peculiar to the 
Southern walnut be required, add yellow chromate of 
potash. For the reddish shade of the Northern wood, 
add more eosine. 

3. For oil stain, use Vandyke brown toned up with 
the siennas, the colors being strictly pure and finely 
ground in oil, and diluted with turpentine and a small 
amount ofjapan. 

4. Burnt Turkey umber mixed in the same way as 
the former. 

5. Mix together, by stirring, i quart spirits of 
turpentine, I pint asphaltum varnish, i pint of japan, 
I lb. dry burnt umber, i lb. dry Venetian red; apply 
with a brush. This stain is transparent, and allows the 
grain of the wood to show through. 

6. Boil i^ ounces washing soda and ^ ounce 
bichromate of potash, in i quart of water; add 2}^ 
ounces Vandyke brown. This stain may be used 
either hot or cold. 

7. With a brush apply a thin solution of perman- 
ganate of potassa in water, until the desired color is 
produced, allowing each coat to dry before another is 
applied. 

For Mahogany or Cherry. — i. For mahogany, use a 
pint of turpentine and an ounce of color known as 
dragons' blood. Dissolve and shake well before 
applying. For ebony, use hot liquor from logwood 
chips, and after dry apply a coat of tincture of steel. 



144 THE UP-TO-DATE 

For walnut, use 2 ounces of washing soda, darkened 
with Vandyke brown in water. Add 2 ounces of 
bichromate of potash in ij^ pints of water. 

2. Mix together, by stirring, i quart of spirits of 
turpentine, i pint of varnish, and i lb. of dry burnt 
sienna; apply with a brush, and after it has been on 
about five minutes wipe it off with rags. This stain 
takes about I2 hours to dry. 

3. Take i quart alcohol, 2 ounces of dragons' 
blood; pulverize the latter along with ^ ounce of 
alkanet root; mix, and let stand in a warm place a 
couple of days. Shake frequently in the meantime. 
Apply with a sponge or brush. Two or three coats 
may be required. This makes a fine stain. 

For Rosewood. — i. Mix in a bottle ^ lb. of extract 
of logwood, I ounce salts o£ tartar, and i pint of water; 
in another bottle, put i lb. of old iron in small pieces, 
and I pint of vinegar, which, after standing 24 hours, 
will be ready for use; make a hard, stiff brush with a 
piece of rattan sharpened at one end in a wedge shape, 
pounding it so as to separate the fiber. Mix in i pint 
of varnish ^ lb. of finely-powdered rose-pink. The 
materials are now ready, and the first thing in the 
process is to stain the wood with the logwood stain; 
give two coats of this, allowing the first to become 
nearly dry before applying the second; then dip the 
rattan brush in the vinegar, and with it form the grain, 
after which give the work a coat of the varnish and 
rose-pink. There can be no definite directions given 
for graining, except to study the natural wood and 
imitate it as r^early as possible. With the above 
materials skillfully applied, any common wood can be 
made to resemble rosewood so nearly that it will take 
a good judge to distinguish the difference. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 145 

2. Boil I lb. of logwood in i gallon of water, add a 
double handful of walnut shell, boil the whole again, 
strain the liquor and add to it I pint of the best 
vinegar. It is then ready for use. Apply it boiling 
hot, and when the wood is dry, form red veins in 
imitation of the grain of rosewood with a brush dipped 
in the following solution: Nitric acid, I pint; metallic 
tin, I ounce; sal ammoniac, i ounce. Mix and set 
aside to dissolve, occasionally shaking. If carefully 
executed it will give the appearance of dark rosewood. 

For surface stains the following are sometimes used. 
The colors are all to be mixed with very thin glue 
size, .laid on warm with a soft woolen material, and 
the wood wiped dry after application. All the colors 
used in staining should be well pulverized, and before 
use the liquid should be strained. 

Imitation Oak Stain. — Equal parts burnt umber and 
brown ocher. 

Imitation Mahogany Stain. — One part Venetian red, 
and two parts yellow lead. 

Imitation Rosewood Stain. — Venetian red, darkened 
with lampblack to required shade. 

Imitation Walnut Stain. ^ — Burnt umber and yellow 
ocher, mixed in proportions to give desired shade. 

Before leaving the subject of pine, it may be as well 
to say a few words regarding the long-leaved, or Georgia 
pine {Pi?iics Pulustris), as a great deal of it is used now 
in and about the city of New York, Chicago, and other 
large centers. This wood is very fine, strong and 
lasting. Some of it is insusceptible of fine finish, but 
the best success with it is when treated with shellac 
finish. In all other respects, when used as a finishing 
material, it may be treated the same as ordinary 
pine. 



146 THE UP-TO-DATE 

The softness of white pine and its susceptibility to 
injury may Iiave had some influence in prev(Miting its 
general use for ornamental purposes, but the wood 
can be "filled," so that much of this objection is re- 
moved. Its pure white color — white as compared- 
with other woods — recommends it for purposes for 
which holly has been heretofore used; and the size of 
the timber from which clear lumber may be cut is 
greatly in its favor, boards of a width of sixteen and 
even twenty inches being not uncommon, with no 
shade of distinction between sap-wood and heart, and 
only the faintest perceptible grain. 

Some specimens lately examined show a greatly 
enhanced beauty by very simple treatment — the filling 
with warm shellac varnish, bleached shellac in alcohol, 
applied with a brush while warm. Several coats are 
given, the last coat being rubbed with pumice and 
rotten stone moistened with water, not oil. A finish 
of a flowing coat of copal varnish completes the 
preparation. Thus treated, the wood is of a faint 
creamy tint, with an appearance of semi-transparency. 
Beautiful gradations of tone were obtained by panels 
of this prepared pine, mouldings of holly, and stiles 
of curly or bird's-eye jnaple, and fine contrasts were 
made with the pine and oiled black walnut. 

For an Egg-Shell Gloss. — One coat of shellac (white 
shellac if the natural color of the wood is to be 
preserved, or orange shellac if the wood is to be 
stained, or is desired to be darker in tone than the 
natural color), sandpaper to a smooth surface, and 
follow with two or three coats of Berry Brothers' 
(white or light) hard oil finish (specify white hard oil 
finish if it is desired to retain the natural color of 
white pine); rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 147 

hair, and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone 
and raw linseed oil. 

For a Dull Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
instead of oil. 

For a Polished Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
for 2l piano finish specify a further rubbing with Berry 
Brothers' furniture polish, used with a little pulverized 
rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel. 

If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifi- 
cations for rubbing the last coat. 

One of the best ways, though perhaps not the cheapest 
way, to finish white pine is to see that the work is well 
sandpapered with the grain, then thoroughly dusted. 
Give it at least one coat of white shellac varnish and 
one coat of inside varnish. Should this prove to be 
too expensive, substitute liquid filler for the shellac. 
For hard or yellow pine finish apply one coat of orange 
shellac varnish and one or two coats light hard oil 
finish, or omit the shellac and apply hard finish 
instead. A filler is not required for this wood. In 
every instance, however, whether shellac varnish, 
liquid filler or hard oil finish is used, care must be 
taken that the first coat is thoroughly dry and hard 
before applying the succeeding coat, or the latter is 
liable to sink in, causing lack of luster. 

Maple 

IBlA'^Yq {Acer pseudo platanus). — This is a close-grained 
wood and needs no* filling; it should always be 
finished in its own color, and that not darkened but 
kept as light as possible by the use of white shellac 



148 THE UP-TO-DATE 

for filling and the whitest ivory varnish to be found. 
Most manufacturers of \'arnish make an article from 
carefully selected gums that is intended for such 
a use. It goes without the saying and as a matter of 
course that hard maple takes on the finest polish of 
any kind of the woods. 

For an Egg-Shell Gloss. — One coat of white shellac 
sandpapered to a smooth surface, followed by two or 
three coats of Berry Brothers' or other reliable white 
hard oil finish; rub first coats with hair-cloth or curled 
hair, and the last coat with pulverized pumice-stone 
and raw linseed oil. 

For a Dull Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
instead of oil. 

For a Polished Finish. — Specify that the last coat oe 
rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
and then with pulverized rotten stone and water, and 
for a piano JiiiisJi specify a further rubbing with 
furniture polish, used with a little pulverized rotten 
stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or flannel. 

If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the spec- 
ifications for rubbing the last coat. 

White and Black Ash 

Ash {Fraxi?itis excelsior). — This wood is now used 
very much by cabinetmakers and house-joiners in 
place of oak, and I have often seen furniture palmed 
off to unsuspecting customers as antique oak, and in 
one instance I knew of an architect who specified oak, 
and who "passed'' a mixture of white and black ash 
as oak, either knowingly or otherwise. I am not 
sure that the owners in either case lost anything, for 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 149 

good sound Canadian ash is decidedly better than 
dosey red oak. 

In finishing ash, either black or white, the same 
methods are adopted as for finishing oak, and similar 
processes will give similar results. Ingenious stainers 
and finishers can make ash resemble oak wainscot, in 
vein and color, so correctly that it is almost impossible 
for the most experienced connoisseur to distinguish 
the genuine from the spurious. In order to do this 
some finishers make a commencement by sketching 
out, upon certain parts of the ash exterior, the 
requisite white veins, by means of a camel-hair pencil, 
with white stain; that done, they coat the veins with 
thin varnish, and then darken the general ground, 
dealing carefully throughout the entire process with 
the veined portions. Others stain and embody, i.e., 
French polish, the ash with the ordinary preparation, 
after which they pursue an operative course termed 
"hamping''; that is, scratching fancifully, so as to 
form the veins, upon different parts of the coated 
surface, before it gets time to harden, with a saturated 
rag. The former process is, however, the more suit- 
able of the two. 

For an Egg-Shell Gloss. — One coat of filler to match 
the color of the wood, followed by one coat of white 
shellac sandpapered to a smooth surface, and two or 
three coats of white or light hard oil finish; rub first 
coats with hair-cloth or curled hair, and the last coat 
with pulverized pumice-stone and raw linseed oil. 

For a Dull Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 
instead of oil. 

For a Polished Finish. — Specify that the last coat be 
rubbed first with pulverized pumice-stone and water, 



150 THE UP-TO-DATE 

and then with pulveri/cd rotten stone and water, and 
ior a />ia/io Ji?ns/i iipcciiy a. further rubbing with Berry 
Brothers' furniture polish, used with a little pulverized 
rotten stone, applied with a piece of soft felt or 
flannel. 

If a rubbed finish is not desired, omit the specifica- 
tions for rubbing the last coat. 

Other Woods 

Cedar, White {Cupressus tliuyoides), which is really a 
spruce, and all similar woods, should never be finished 
in a natural state. Deep stains or surface stains should 
always be employed on these woods if they are not to 
be painted. 

Beech {Fagiis ferrugined), — This is one of the 
unnoticed woods of former years, but is now gradually 
gaining in favor as a decorative wood. It is cheap and 
also quite abundant, while the more popular hardwoods 
are beginning to grow scarcer and higher in price. 
Beechwood has a fine grain, is quite durable, and can 
be used in the manufacture of furniture and for 
decorative purposes generally. The red variety has a 
handsome appearance and is especially suitable for 
use where a good imitation of cherry is desired. 

If "quarter sawed" it shows a fine grain and has a 
character distinctly its own which I think has never 
been properly appreciated. When quartered, prop- 
erly finished, filled and polished, it looks some- 
thing like dark leopard wood. It will assume a dark 
mahogany color if prepared like cherry or birch, or it 
may be made to appear like walnut if treated with 
walnut stains and finish. 

Elm {Ulnms America?ia), Chestnut {Castanea vesca), 
Butternut {Juglaiis cinered). — These three woods are 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 151 

often used in inferior work, and are very soft and easily 
dented. The best is perhaps the elm, which does 
very well for bath-room finish, panels for ash doors 
and similar work. All require a great deal of "filling," 
and this should be well rubbed in if a good job is 
required. All of these woods have a very coarse 
grain, but if care is taken in selecting the material, 
very odd and sometimes pleasing effects may be 
obtained. Any of the stains used on pine will 
answer for these woods, dependent, of course, on the 
tints desired. The best result with these woods is 
derived by giving the work one coat of shellac after 
filling and staining; then sandpaper well and apply 
your varnish or oil finish or whatever you purpose 
finishing in. 

Sycamore, or Buttonwood, as it is sometimes called 
{acer pseudo platanus)^ when quarter sawed and properly 
finished makes a good appearance, and in many cases 
is superseding cherry owing to its beauty and 
cheapness. Heretofore its natural beauty has been 
destroyed in many cases by staining the wood, and 
thus preventing the development of many chemical 
changes which take place and are thrown to the surface 
when properly treated. When quarter sawed, a light- 
bodied and light-colored shellac should be used, when 
by a natural chemical process a beautiful silver leaf is 
developed and the surface assumes a charming pink 
hue. 

Hemlock {Abies Canadensis). — This is rarely used for 
finishing, owing to its brittleness and splintery nature. 
Clean boards, however, made into panels or other 
similar work and then finished in natural color, 
assume a very handsome appearance. It has a pink 
tint of the most delicate kind, which improves and 



152 THE UP-TO-DATE 

mellows with age. It should be finished in the same 
manner as pine. 

I have purposely left unmentioned a number of our 
finest woods, concerning which I should have more to 
say, w^ould it not increase the size of this volume be- 
yond reasonable dimensions. The workmen will 
know, from what has already been said, how these 
light woods may be treated, and I may add that the 
various maples, though rather light in color for general 
purposes, make the most delicate of finish. Gum- 
wood of late has been used to some extent and is not 
hard to deal with when to be finished. It should be 
treated about as cherry and birch, and finished in a 
similar way, and when done nicely the work looks 
quite well. 

Redwood is getting to be a favorite wood with some 
builders, owing no doubt to its cheapness, and its 
easiness to work. It may be classed among the soft 
woods and requires treating about the same as chest- 
nut, butternut and the cedars. The following formula 
and directions have been highly recommended as a 
finish, but for my own part I prefer using Wheeler's 
filler, as I think better results are obtained. Here is 
the formula: 

Take i quart spirits turpentine. 

Add I pound corn-starch. 

Add ^ pound burnt sienna. 

Add I tablespoonful raw linseed oil. 

Add I tablespoonful brown japan. 
Mix thoroughly, apply with a brush, let it stand, say 
fifteen minutes; rub off all you can with fine shavings 
or a soft rag, then let it stand at least tivcnty-fotir hours, 
that it may sink into and Jiardcii the fibers of the wood, 
afterward apply two coats of white shellac; rub down 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 153 

well with fine flint paper, then put on from two to five 
coats best polishing varnish; after it is well dried, rub 
with water and pumice-stone ground very fine, stand 
a day to dry; after being washed, clean with chamois, 
rub with water and rotten stone; dry, wash clean, as 
before, and rub with olive oil until dry. 

Some use cork for sandpapering and polishing, but 
a smooth block of hardwood like maple is better. 
When treated in this way redwood will be found the 
peer of any wood for real beauty and life as a house 
trim or finish. By proper attention, redwood may be 
made to appear like mahogany or cherry, but its 
softness is very much against it. 

SOME GENERAL RECIPES 

Ebonizing. — Prepare some shellac varnish by dissolv- 
ing half a pound of gum shellac in a quart of alcohol; 
put in a tightly corked bottle, set in a warm place, and 
shake frequently. When completely dissolved, add 
sufficient dry lamp or bone black. It will require 
only about a heaping tablespoonful to half a pint of 
varnish. Should it be too thick to flow easily from 
the brush and spread evenly, add alcohol. Give the 
wood two or three coats of this, which can be done 
within two days. For fine woik give three coats of 
the black varnish and allow it to dry thoroughly; then 
take some 00 or 000 sandpaper and rub the work down 
lightly until the surface is smooth and even, being 
careful not to rub through to the wood. Then apply 
two or three coats more, and rub down again with the 
sandpaper; give two coats more and allow it to dry 
perfectly hard. Make some rubbers of felt — an old 
felt hat is good — by tacking the felt on blocks of soft 
wood of proper shape, which should be flat, concave 



154 THE UP-TO-DATE 

or convex to fit the work. Apply a few drops of 
sewing machine oil to the felt and sprinkle on a pinch 
of pulverized pumice-stone. Rub the work with this, 
keeping the rubber moist with oil and supplied with 
the pumice, until the wood shows a perfectly smooth 
surface, without any gloss. When it has all been 
gone over, wipe off the surface and rub clean with dry 
flannel cloths. The result is a fine imitation of ebony. 
If the shellac varnish is colored with aniline instead 
of lampblack, the finished surface is smoother and finer. 
Others. — i. Infuse gall-nut in vinegar, in which 
rusty nails have been soaked; paint the wood with this, 
polish and burnish when dry. 2. Wash the wood 
repeatedly with a solution of sulphate of iron, made by 
dissolving 2 ounces of sulphate in a piht of hot water. 
When dry, apply a hot decoction of logwood and nut- 
galls two or three times. When dry, clean with a wet 
sponge and then polish. 3. Brush the wood with a 
strong decoction of logwood chips several times. 
When dry, give it a coat of vinegar in which rusty 
iron has been placed. Dissolve beeswax in turpentine 
by setting in a warm place; apply warm with a brush, 
and rub it till it shines. 4. Wash with a concentrated 
aqueous solution of logwood several times, and then 
with a solution of acetate of iron 40° Baume. Repeat 
till a deep black is produced. 5. Put 2 ounces of log- 
wood chips with 1}^ ounces of copperas in a quart of 
water, boil, and lay on hot. When dry, wet the sur- 
face again with 2 ounces of steel filings dissolved in 
half a pint of vinegar. When dry again, sandpaper 
smooth, then oil, then fill it with pow^dered drop black 
mixed in the filler. Work to be ebonized should be 
smooth and free from holes. Give it a light coat of 
quick-drying varnish, then rub with finely pulverized 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 155 

pumice-stone and linseed oil until very smooth. 6. 
Boil y2 pound of chip logwood in 2 quarts of water, 
and add ^ ounce of verdigris and ^ ounce of cop- 
peras, strain, and put in % pound of rusty steel filings. 
With this go over the work a second time. 7. A 
pound of logwood boiled in 4 quarts of water, add 2 
handfuls of walnut shells or peel, boil up again, take 
out the chips, add a pint of vinegar, and apply boiling. 
Afterwards dissolve i ounce of green copperas in a 
quart of boiling water and apply hot. 8. First sponge 
the wood with a solution of chlorhydrate of aniline in 
water, to which a small quantity of copper chloride is 
added. When dry, go over again with a solution of 
potassium bichromate. Repeat this twice or thrice. 
9. One gallon of vinegar, y^ pound of green copperas, 
y pound of China blue, 2 ounces nut-gall, 2 pounds 
extract of logwood. Boil all these over a slow fire, 
and add half a pint of iron-rust. Apply as usual. A 
good varnish for ebonized work is made by dissolving 
in alcohol some black wax. 

STAINS 

Many excellent stains for pine may be obtained by 
using the ordinary graining colors, Vandyke brown, 
raw and burnt sienna, ultramarine blue, etc., applied 
with a brush, without previous preparation, and then 
wiped off with a cloth — a method that brings out 
clearly the grain or marks of the wood, which in pitch 
pine, now being extensively used. for fittings, are often 
extremely beautiful. A better method for general 
work — French polish being ordinarily too expensive — 
is, where dark oak or mahogany stains are not wanted, 
light varnishes, of which two coats are to be applied. 
The glue size with which the work is first coated, in 



156 THE UP-TO-DATE 

order to fill up the pores of the wood, should not be 
too thick, as in that case it is liable to crack. 

Logwood, lime, brown soft-soap, dyed oil, sulphate 
of iron, nitrate of silver exposed to the sun's rays, 
carbonate of soda, bichromate and permanganate of 
potash, and other alkaline preparations, are used for 
darkening the wood; the last three are specially 
recommended. The solution is applied by dissolving 
I ounce of the alkali in 2 gills of boiling water, diluted 
to the required tone. The surface is saturated with a 
sponge or flannel, and immediately dried with soft rags. 
The carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil tinged 
with rose madder may be applied to hardwoods like 
birch, and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet 
root in linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine can be 
brought out by two or three coats of japan, much 
diluted with turpentine, and afterwards oiled and 
rubbed. To give mahogany the appearance of age, 
lime water used before oiling is a good plan. In 
staining wood, the best and most transparent effect is 
obtained by repeated light coats of the same. For 
oak stain a strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; 
for mahogany, dilute nitric acid. A primary coat or a 
coat of wood fillers is advantageous. For mahogany 
stains, the following are given: 2 ounces of dragons' 
blood dissolved in i quart of rectified spirits of wnne, 
well shaken, or raw sienna in beer, with burnt sienna 
to give the required tone; for darker stains boil Yi 
l^ound of madder and" 2 ounces of logwood chips in i 
gallon of water, and brush the decoction while hot 
over the wood; when dry, paint with a solution of 2 
ounces of potash in i quart of water. A solution of 
permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent 
brown stain. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 157 

Oak or ash may be stained brown by using linseed 
oil and benzine half and half, and burnt umber or 
Vandyke brown incorporated with this. Maple can 
be stained green-gray by using copperas in water; oak 
will also be changed to a dark green-blue through the 
same agency, the effect on ash being various shades of 
olive green. Ammonia applied to oak produces the 
bronze olive tint now used so much by architects. 

Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction of 
logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between 
each application. Then wash it with a solution of 
acetate of iron, which is made by dissolving iron filings 
in vinegar. This stain is very black, and penetrates 
to a considerable depth into the wood, so that ordinary 
scratching or chipping does not show the original 
color. 

A wash of I part of nitric acid in 10 parts of water 
will, if well done, impart a stain resembling mahogany 
to pine wood which does not contain much resin. 
When the wood is thoroughly dry, shellac varnish will 
impart a fine finish to the surface. A glaze of carmine 
or lake will produce a rosewood finish. A turpentine 
extract of alkanet root produces a beautiful stain which 
admits of French polishing. Asphaltum, thinned with 
turpentine, makes an excellent mahogany color on 
new wood. 

A Method of imparting to any plain white wood 
the appearance of cedar wood is as follows: Mix 2 
parts of catechu, and i part of caustic soda, in 100 
parts of water (all by weight). The article to be 
stained should be boiled in this solution for some 
hours, and is then rinsed in clear water and dried. If 
the .desired depth of tone has not been obtained, a 
second boiling must be resorted to. This stain is said 



158 THE UP -TO -DATE 

to sink so deep into the wood that even thick sheets of 
veneer thus treated will be colored right through; 
while other wood articles thus stained may be safely 
manipulated without any fear of the original color of 
the wood showing through. 

For a Brown Stain. — Boil i pound of the brown 
pigment called Terre de Cassel with 4 quarts of water, 
until it is reduced one-third. Mix 2 ounces (Troy) of 
white potash with sufficient water to dissolve it, and 
mix with the Terre de Cassel. This stain must be 
applied with a brush, two or even three times, accord- 
ing to the depth of the shade required. 

Another. — Paint the wood with a solution made by 
boiling one pot of catechu with 30 parts of water and 
a little soda;- when dry, paint over with another 
solution made of i part bichromate of potash and 30 
parts water. By a little difference in the mode of 
treatment, and by varying the strength of the 
solutions, several shades of color may be given. 

Staining Carved Panels. — First, oil the panels with 
linseed oil, then mix a little powdered water stain (this 
is best mixed with rain water), and brush over the 
stain with a hog's hair brush, using as little stain as 
possible. When dr}-, give a coat of button polish, 
which must be laid on with a camel-hair brush. Care 
must be taken not to form puddles in the carvings, 
either with the stain or polish. When the polish is 
quite dry, the panels will be improved by rubbing with 
a piece of clean linen rag. By following the foregoing, 
a good effect is obtained, and, by oiling before staining, 
the fibers of the wood will not rise. 

Staining Spirit Varnish for Furniture, etc. — White hard 
spirit varnish, as it comes from the makers, is generally 
much too thick for mixing with stain, and does not 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 159 

distribute evenly. Stained varnishes should be diluted 
with spirits or turpentine, whichever may be the 
solvent. Two applications of thin varnish will give far 
more satisfactory results than one heavy coating of 
thick varnish. Brown hard spirit varnish with the 
addition of red stain will give much better results. 
When the work is streaky, it would be advisable to 
remove it by softening with spirits or grinding down 
with pumice-stone powder and water, then using 
varnish as advised above. Oil varnish, such as church 
oak varnish, is generally considered too garish for use 
on furniture. In repolishing old work, the idea of 
filling up a deep scratch with beeswax and resin is a 
good one, but it requires considerable practice to get a 
quite level surface and a perfect match as regards 
color. The surface that has been disturbed during the 
operation maybe treated by coloring up; that is, body- 
ing up to fill the grain of the wood; then, by blending 
together suitable colors, mixed in i part of* polish to 
3 parts of spirits, carefully penciling in till a perfect 
match is secured. 

DYEING WOODS 

For a Black Dye. — Put 6 pounds of chip logwood into 
the copper, with as many veneers as it will con- 
veniently hold, without pressing too tight; fill it with 
water, and let it boil slowly for about three hours; 
then add ^ pound of powdered verdigris, Y^ pound of 
copperas, and 4 ounces of bruised nut-galls; fill the 
copper up with vinegar as the water evaporates; let it 
boil gently two hours each day till the wood is dyed 
through. 

Another. — Procure some liquor from a tanner's pit, 
or make a decoction of oak bark, and to every gallon 



i6o THE UP-TO-DATE 

of the liquor add a quarter of a pound of green 
copperas, and mix them well together; put the liquor 
into the copper, and make it quite hot, but not boil; 
immerse the veneers in it, and let them remain for an 
hour; take them out, and expose them to the air, till 
it has penetrated its substance; then add some logwood 
to the solution, place the veneers again in it, and let it 
simmer for two or three hours; let the whole cool 
gradually, dry the veneers in the shade, and they will 
be a very fine black. 

Dyeing wood is mostly applied for the purpose of 
veneers, while staining is more generally had recourse 
to, to give the desired color to the article after it has 
been manufactured. In the one case the color should 
penetrate throughout, while in the latter the surface 
is all that is essential. 

In dyeing pear tree, holly and beech, take the best 
black; but for most colors holly is preferable. It is 
also best to have wood as young and as newly cut as 
possible. After the veneers are cut, they should be 
allowed to lie in a trough of water for four or five days 
before they are put into the copper, as the water, 
acting as a purgative to the wood, brings out an 
abundance of slimy matter, which must be removed, or 
the wood will never be a good color. After this 
purificatory process, they should be dried in the open 
air for at least twelve hours. They are then ready 
for the copper. By these simple means the color will 
strike much quicker, and be of a brighter hue. It 
would also add to the improvement of the colors, if, 
after the veneers have boiled a few hours, they are 
taken out, dried in the air, and again immersed in the 
coloring copper. Always dry veneers in the open air, 
for fire invariably injures the colors. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 161 

Fine Blue Dye. — Into a clean glass bottle put I pound 
of oil of vitriol, and 4 ounces of the best indigo 
pounded in a mortar (take care to set the bottle in a 
basin or earthen glazed pan, as it will ferment); then 
put the veneers into a copper or stone trough; fill it 
rather more than one-third with water, and add as 
much of the vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as 
will make a fine blue, which may be known by trying 
it with a piece of white paper or wood. Let the 
veneers remain till the dye has struck through. 

The color will be much improved if the solution of 
indigo in vitriol be kept a few weeks before using it. 
The color will strike better if the veneers are boiled 
in plain.water till completely soaked through, and then 
allowed for a few hours to dry partially, previous to 
being immersed in the dye. 

Another. — Throw pieces of quicklime into soft 
water; stir it well; when settled, strain or pour off the 
clear part; then to every gallon add ten or twelve 
ounces of the best turnsole; put the whole into the 
copper with the veneers, which should be of white 
holly, and prepared as usual by boiling in water; let 
them simmer gently till the color has sufficiently 
penetrated, but be careful not to let them boil in it, 
as it would injure the color. 

A Fine Yellow Dye. — Reduce 4 pounds of the root of 
barberry, by sawing, to dust, which put in a copper or 
brass trough; add 4 ounces of turmeric and 4 gallons 
of water, then put in as many white holly veneers as 
the liquor will cover; boil them together for three hours, 
often turning them; when cool, add 2 ounces of aqua 
fortis and the dye will strike through much sooner. 

A Bright Yellow Dye. — To every gallon of water 
necessary to cover the veneers, add i pound of French 



i62 THE UP-TO-DATE 

berries; boil the veneers till the color has penetrated 
through; add to the infusion of the French berries, the 
liquid for brightening colors given as stated, and let 
the veneers remain for two or three hours, and the 
color will be very bright. 

Bright Green Dye. — Proceed as in either of the 
previous recipes to produce a yellow; but instead of 
adding aqua fortis or the brightening liquid, add as 
much vitriolated indigo as will produce the desired 
color. 

Green Dye. — Dissolve 4 ounces of the best verdigris, 
and of sap-green and indigo J4 ounce each, in 3 pints 
of the best vinegar; put in the veneers, and gently boil 
till the color has penetrated sufficiently. 

The hue of the green may be varied by altering the 
proportion of the ingredients; and it is advised, unless 
wanted for a particular purpose, to leave out the 
sap-green, as it is a vegetable color very apt to change, 
or turn brown, when exposed to the air. 

Bright Red Dye. — To 2 pounds of genuine Brazil 
dust, add 4 gallons of water; put in as many veneers 
as the liquor will cover; boil them for three hours; 
then add 2 ounces of alum, and 2 ounces of aqua fortis, 
and keep it lukewarm until it has struck through. 

Red Dye. — To every pound of logwood chips, add 2 
gallons of water; put in the veneers, and boil as in the 
last; then add a sufficient quantity of the brightening 
liquid till you see the color to your mind; keep the 
whole as warm as the finger can be borne in it, till the 
color has sufficiently penetrated. 

The logwood chips should be picked from all 
foreign substances, with which it generally abounds, 
as bark, dirt, etc.; and it is always best when fresh 
cut, which may be known by its appearing of a 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 163 

bright-red color; for if stale, it will look brown, and 
not yield so much coloring matter. 

Purple Dye. — To 2 pounds of chip logwood and ^ 
pound of Brazil dust, add 4 gallons of water, and after 
putting in the veneers, boil them for at least three 
hours; then add 6 ounces of pearlash and 2 ounces of 
alum; let them boil for two or three hours every day, 
till the color has struck through. 

The Brazil dust only contributes to make the purple 
of a more red cast; you may, therefore, omit it, ii 
you require a deep bluish purple. 

Another. — Boil 2 pounds of logwood, either in chips 
or powder, in 4 gallons of water, with the veneers; after 
boiling till the color is well struck in, add by degrees 
vitriolated indigo till the pur.ple is of the shade required, 
which may be known by trying it with a piece of paper; 
let it then boil for one hour, and keep the liquid in a 
milk-warm state till the color has penetrated the veneer. 
This method, when properly managed, will produce a 
brilliant purple, not so likely to fade as the foregoing. 

Liquid for Brightening and Setting Colors. — To every 
pint of strong aqua fortis, add I ounce of grain tin, and 
a piece of sal-ammoniac of the size of a walnut; set 
it by to dissolve, shake the bottle round with the cork 
out, from time to time; in the course of two or three 
days it will be fit for use. This will be found an 
admirable liquid to add to any color, as it not only 
brightens it, but renders it less likely to fade from 
exposure to the air. 

Orange Dye. — Let the veneers be dyed by either of 
the methods given as above, of a fine deep yellow, and 
while they are still wet and saturated with the dye, trans- 
fer them to the bright red dye, till the color penetrates 
equally throughout. 



i64 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Silver Gray Dye.— Expose to the weather, in a cast- 
iron pot of six or eight gallons, old iron nails, hoops, 
etc., till covered with rust; add i gallon of vinegar 
and 2 of water, boil all well for an hour; have the 
veneers read)-, which must be hardwood (not too dry), 
put them in the copper used to dye black, and pour 
the iron liquor over them; add I pound of chip log- 
wood and 2 ounces of bruised nut-galls; then boil up 
another pot of the iron liquor to supply the copper 
with, keeping the veneers covered, and boiling two 
hours a day, till the required color is obtained. 

Gray Dye. — Expose any quantity of old iron, or what 
is better, the borings of gun-barrels, etc., in any con- 
venient vessel, and from time to time sprinkle them 
with spirits of salt (muriatic acid) diluted in four 
times its quantity of water, till they are very thickly 
covered with rust; then to every 6 pounds add I 
gallon of water, in which has been dissolved 2 ounces 
of salt of tartar; lay the veneers in the copper, and 
cover them with this liquid; let it boil for two or 
three hours till well soaked, then to every gallon of 
liquor add a quarter of a pound of green copperas, and 
keep the whole at a moderate temperature till the dye 
has suflficiently penetrated. 

GILDING, SILVERING, BRONZING, AND COMPOSITION 

In gilding, the design should be simple and fairly 
open, so that the gold leaf can be laid in water without 
too many difficulties. As the particular method of 
gilding here described requires the whole surface to 
be burnished, it will be found that a design should be 
treated in a broad way, as, if the surface is too much 
broken up, it will, on account of its being burnished, 
and therefore reflecting light in a high degree, be 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 



165 



worrying in its effects, as well as entailing an enormous 
amount of time to lay the gold leaf in water. The 
clever craftsman is he who gets his effects, by means 
as simple as possible. That piece of work will be the 
most satisfactory that fulfills the purpose for which it 
was designed, however simple the means, so long as 
the result is lasting. 

In the design Fig. 115 now given, the frame is to 

take a mirror, __^ 

the sight size of ^3 
which should 
be i6}i inches 
high by 13^ 
inches wide, the 
full size of the 
plate being 17 
inches by 14 
inches. The 
extreme dimen- 
sions of the 
frame are 243^ 
inches high, 

25^ inches y^^ 115 

wide. The 

plinth will require a piece 20^ inches by 3^ inches 
by j4 inches thick; the moulding for it will require a 
piece ^ inch by ys inch. The pilasters are 2)/i inches 
by ^ inch thick. They are tenoned into the plinth, 
the mortises in which should not be more than i}{ 
inches deep, so that they do not come below the mar- 
ginal line of the carving along it. The top rail, which 
shows }i inch on the face of the frame, is tenoned 
into the pilasters; the top of the carving on the pilasters 
should come on a line with the rail, so as not to weaken 




i66 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



or cut through the mortises. The 
hollow moulding is got out of 3^ 
inches by 'i inch, and is returned on 
the sides, as is the moulding on the 
plinth. The ogee moulding requires 
a piece 25 3 8 inches by 3^8 inches by 
^4 inch; the returns in this are shaped 
out of the solid at each end of the 
piece, and it is screwed on the frame 
from the top. 

The design for the pilasters, Fig. 
116, is one-fifth full size. It is very 
important when carving to treat the 
ground freely; the worker should 
aim at having the ground somewhat 
uneven, not in an abrupt and obvious 
way, but with a soft up and down sort 
of feeling, which will, when the work 
is gilded, make it look ever so much 
more human. The result will be 
more interesting than if the ground 
is cut perfectly flat and even. The 
edges round the carved parts should 
not be set in, but should slope un- 
derneath the forms in an easy hollow. 
The pilasters should be grounded 
out a J4 inch at the base, and more 
shallow at the top, so that the smaller 
leaves and flower should be in fainter 
relief. The plinth should not be 
grounded out deeper than ^ inch. 

Pine or whitewood may be used to make the frame. 
Having made the frame and put it together, we now 

want to gild it. The way here described is a modi- 



FiG. 116 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 167 

fication of the old Italian method. First of all, it will 
be necessary to slake some fine plaster of Paris in 
water for three weeks (about i pound of plaster to 
4 gallons of water). It should be stirred frequently 
the first day to prevent setting. At the end of three 
weeks the water is poured out, the plaster is put into 
a cloth, and the water squeezed out; it is then left to 
dry into a solid cake. When wanted for use, break a 
piece that will go in a small pipkin,|and cover it with 
water for half an hour. While the plaster is soaking 
the frame should be got ready. Clear parchment size 
will now be wanted; it can be had from gilders' 
material dealers. Some should be melted in a pipkin, 
care being taken that it does not boil; if it does, its 
setting property will be destroyed. With a round 
hog-hair brush give the frame two coats of clear size, 
using it its full strength; then pour the water off the 
plaster and pour some warm size, full strength, over it 
and mix together; it should be mixed to the con- 
sistency of cream; warm it up, and strain through 
muslin, working it through with a brush; warm it 
again, and give a coat to the carved work with the 
hog-hair brush, and to the plain parts with a camel- 
hair mop. Four coats should be given on the carved 
parts, using the soft brush after the first coat, and 
six coats given on the plain parts. They should be 
given as soon as the preceding coat is set, but not dry. 

When the coats are quite dry, which should be the 
next day, the plaster has to be smoothed down. It 
will be more possible to preserve the shape in the 
small work if emery cloth is used. When all rough- 
ness has been smoothed down, all parts should care- 
fully be gone over with finest sandpaper. 

The work has now to be prepared so that the ^old 



i6S THE UP-TO-DATE 

will stand burnishing. Armenian bole, which can be ob- 
tained of chemists, will be required, and some pipeclay. 
Blanc's will do, as it is fine. Three-fifths of bole to 
two of clay are ground together on a piece of glass 
with a muller, using some water while grinding. The 
grinding should proceed for a good half hour, in fact, 
it cannot be too well ground, as, if -it is in the least 
gritty, it will rub through when burnishing. For the 
frame in hand, about half a pipkinful will be required. 
Melt down some size, and put some water in a 
pipkin about a quarter full; add some melted size, so 
that there should be just a bit more size than water. 
Then put in the ground bole and clay, and mix well 
together. The mixture should flow easily from the 
brush, but should not be too thin. Before using all 
over the frame, it will be as well to tr>^ some on the 
back edge; allow it to dry. If it dries the same color 
as when put on wet, there is too much size, and it 
should be weakened with water. If it dries a lighter 
color, rub it down with D emery paper, wearing down 
the sharpness of the paper first, as it is too strong if 
used fresh. If, on being papered, it polishes without 
rubbing off, it is the proper strength, and may be used. 
Should it rub off. it is weak, and more size should be 
added. Having our burnish gold size the proper 
strength, we give the work four coats all over, using 
a camel-hair mop, allowing each coat to set, and 
taking care to take up all pools that may collect in the 
bottoms. \\ hen quite dr\', it must be rubbed down all 
over with D emery paper, and then well bristled with 
a short hog-hair brush until there is a good polish 
everywhere. If there be any dull parts, there is 
something wrong, and the gilding should not proceed 
until put right, as failure will be the result. The 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 169 

most essential points are that the bole be well 
ground, and that the size is not too strong. 

The frame is then ready for gilding. The water to 
gild with must have three teaspoonfuls of size to a 
small pipkin full of water. The gold is laid on in the 
usual way. The writer will attempt to describe how 
to lay it; but it is an operation that really requires 
demonstration. A cushion, a knife, a whole and a 
three tip (the whole tip to take a whole leaf, the three- 
tip to take smaller pieces of the leaf), a camel-hair 
pencil and liner; these should be placed on the same 
handle — one at each end will be wanted. The plinth 
had better be laid first, then the pilasters, all the 
smaller fillets and mouldings next, leaving the hollow 
and ogee mouldings to be laid last, as the beginner 
will by then have acquired some facility in the handling 
of the leaf. It will be better for a beginner to blow 
out one leaf at a time on to his cushion; it will save 
waste until he is more expert in the handling. To 
take out a leaf, hold the book almost perpendicularly, 
expose a gold leaf, and gently blow it on to the 
cushion; then take the cushion in the left hand, 
passing the thumb through the leaf which is under- 
neath; pass the knife very carefully underneath the 
leaf, lift it up, and spread it open on the cushion. If 
no corners are folded underneath it, blow gently in 
the center of it, so that it will be flattened out; then 
cut the leaf by drawing the knife firmly through the 
middle of it; then divide the two halves into three 
pieces,, so that the leaf is divided into six pieces 1% 
■inches by i inch. A piece of gold is picked up by 
the three-tip being placed about halfway on the piece; 
if it does not adhere to the tip the worker should rub 
the tip briskly on his hair — a slight oiliness will make 



i;o THE UP-TO-DATE 

the gold take kindly to the tip. Great care must be 
taken, to keep the knife clean and free from grease. 
The tip with the piece of gold attached to it must be 
held between the first two fingers of the left hand, and 
the knife by the next two fingers. Take up the pencil, 
wet it in the water and size, and wet the ground 
between two of the forms on the plinth. The place to 
be gilded must be wet, but pools must be avoided, else 
the gold will not reach the ground, or, if pressed 
down, the water will burst through the gold and cause 
a stain. Holding the pencil and liner in the right 
hand, the tip is now taken with the right hand, held 
over the place where the gold has to go, and the piece 
gently pressed down on it. With the liner the gold is 
pressed home, and if the piece is somewhat larger than 
the ground, the overlapping gold 'is turned into the 
corners of the ground and ornament with the liner, or 
faulter as gilders call it. All the ground should be 
gone over in this way; gentleness is required so as not 
to break the gold, and smaller pieces should be cut and 
used where needed. When all the ground has been 
laid over, the leaf is cut in suitable pieces to cover the 
forms of the ornament. Great care must be taken in 
wetting the former that the pencil does not touch the 
parts already gilded, for that will mean a stain. In 
laying the fillets and smaller mouldings the gold 
should be used the length of the leaf, but cut the width 
required to cover the space. It will be better to lay 
all the narrowest parts first, going on to the wider and 
gaining experience, so as to be able to use a whole 
leaf on the hollow moulding. In taking up a whole 
leaf with the large tip, the tip must not quite take up 
half of the leaf, so as to be able to lay it without 
break in the hollow. For wetting the larger parts, the 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 171 

camel-hair mop should be used. The parts laid should 
be burnished within two or three hours of the gold 
being laid. With an agate or flint burnisher sound 
the part laid first — if it sounds dull, it is not dry 
enough; if sharp, it is dry and should be burnished at 
once. The burnisher must be used lightly and across 
the form. If everything has been done satisfactorily, 
the burnisher will go very smoothly and softly. The 
resultant burnish will be the color of the gold, and 
not dark, as, indeed, one may say black, as all ordinary 
burnish usually is. When the work has been 
burnished, the beginner will, no doubt, feel distressed 
at seeing parts where the gold has not adhered, but 
that happens to all gilders, more or less, depending on 
the worker's skill, and all those * parts must be 
faulted, using a smaller pencil to wet the faults. 
When done, the frame should sparkle with light and 
shade, full of life and having a depth of color that is 
absent in the frames gilded in the ordinary way. 

Gilding Furniture. — Gold leaf, applied to articles of 
furniture as a means of decoration, is used in two ways,* 
it is applied over an ordinary varnish or other finish, 
in which case but little special preparation is 
necessary; or, as when used for picture frames, 
cornices, etc., it is applied to a specially prepared 
foundation, the basis of which is whiting, mixed 
with various other ingredients suggested by 
experience or fancy. In either case, the gold leaf is 
caused to adhere to the work by size specially 
prepared for the purpose, recipes for which follow 
herewith; the size being first applied to the work, 
and when it has become of the right consistency, the 
gold is laid upon it. Oil gilding and burnish gilding 
are different methods used to obtain certain desired 



172 THE UP-TO-DATE 

effects, the former i)rincipally for articles exposed to 
the weather, and for heightening the effect of incised 
carving or engraving, and the * latter for picture 
frames and articles having a specially prepared 
foundation, whose entire surface is to be gilded. It 
is intended that the gold shall adhere to the work 
only in the places to which the size has been applied, but 
the smallest portion of oil or even a slight dampness 
may cause the gold to partially adhere to the adjoining 
surface, resulting in slightly ragged edges; to prevent 
this, before applying the size to the desired design, 
the entire surface is covered with a thin film of some 
substance perfectly free from moisture, and easily 
removable by water, after completion of the process. 

The Requisites. — First, a sufficient quantity of leaf 
gold, which is of two sorts, the deep gold, as it is 
called, and the pale gold. The former is the best; 
the latter very useful, and may occasionally be 
introduced for variety or effect. 

Second, a gilder's cushion: an oblong piece of wood, 
covered with rough calfskin, stuffed with flannel 
several times doubled, with a border of parchment, 
about four inches deep, at one end, to prevent the 
air blowing the leaves about when placed on the 
cushion. 

Thirdly, a gilding knife, with a straight and very 
smooth edge, to cut the gold. 

Fourthly, several camel-hair pencils in sizes, and 
tips, made of a few long cameTs hairs put between 
two cards, in the same manner as hairs are put into 
tin cases for brushes, thus making a flat brush with a 
very few hairs. 

Lastly, a burnisher, which is a crooked piece of 
agate set in a long wooden handle, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 173 

Sizes. — These are of two kinds: oil sizes are those 
which, when applied, present an adhesive surface, 
requiring the immediate laying of the gold leaf upon 
it; of this class is the oil size commonly used in 
decorating furniture; water sizes are those that are 
allowed to become dry and hard when applied, and 
are rendered adhesive when the gold is to be laid, by 
brushing over with water; for burnish gilding these 
are always employed, as oil size does not dry 
sufficiently hard to permit of burnishing. 

Oil Size for Oil Gilding. — Grind calcined red ocher 
with the best and oldest drying oil. When desired 
for use, add sufficient oil of turpentine to make it 
work freely. 

Parchment Size. — For preparing frames, etc. To half 
a pound of parchment shavings, or cuttings of white 
leather, add three quarts of water, and boil it in a 
proper vessel till reduced to nearly half the quantity; 
then take it off the fire, and strain it through a sieve. 
Be careful in the boiling to keep it well stirred, and 
do not let burn. 

Gold Size for Burnish Gilding. — Grind fine sal- 
ammoniac well with a muller and stone; scrape into 
it a little beef suet, and grind all wet together; after 
which, mix in with a pallet knife a small proportion 
of parchment size with a double proportion of water. 
When about to use, add parchment size until it will 
just flow from the brush. 

Another. — Grind a lump of tobacco pipe clay into 
a very stiff paste with thin size; add a small quantity 
of ruddle and fine black lead, ground very fine, and 
temper the whole with a small piece of tallow. 
When ready to use, reduce with parchment size until 
it will just flow from the brush, 



174 THE UP-TO-DATE 

Another. — Grind separately in water, i pound 
Armenian bole, 2 ounces red lead, a sufficient quantity 
of black lead; mix, and regrind with a small quantity 
of olive oil. Reduce with parchment size to the 
proper consistency. 

To Prevent Gold Adhering. — Either one of the follow- 
ing methods will pre^-ent gold leaf or bronze from 
adhering to the surface beyond the outlines of the 
sizing laid on to receive it: 

1. Whiting used dry, and applied by means of a 
pounce bag. 

2. Whiting mixed in water, and applied with a 
soft brush. When the water has evaporated, dust 
off the superfluous whiting with an ordinary paint 
duster. By this method a very thin coating of whiting 
remains, which is free from any grittiness. One 
advantage gained by the use of whiting thus applied 
is, it furnishes a whitish ground over which clear 
varnish or oil size may be distinctl}' seen as the 
striping progresses. After the leaf or bronze has been 
applied, the work must be carefully washed, so as to 
insure the removal of the whiting. 

3. White of egg reduced with water, and applied 
with a piece of sponge. 

4. A thin wash of starch water, either brushed on 
with a flat camel-hair brush, or applied with a soft 
sponge. 

5. Take ball liquorice and water, a weak solution, 
and apply with a soft brush. This ma\' be kept in a 
bottle ready for use at any time. 

6. Cut a new potato in two, and rub over the part to 
be sized with the raw face exposed, allowing the 
juice to remain until dry. 

It will be observed that anv substance which inter- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 175 

poses a film over the varnish, itself being free from 
tackiness and readily removed by water, will answer 
the purpose. 

Oil Gilding. — Applying the gold. — If the wood to be 
gilded is finished with varnish or otherwise, no 
additional foundation is necessary upon which to lay 
the gold leaf; if the wood is not finished, after it has 
been smoothed and dusted, give it one or two coats 
of parchment size, after it is perfectly dry and hard, 
again smoothing the surface with fine sandpaper. 
That the gold may not adhere to any part of the work 
except where the size is hard, powder the surface 
lightly with whiting from a pounce bag, which is a 
small bag made of material sufficiently loose to permit 
the powdered whiting to sift through as fine dust; if 
preferred, any of the preceding recipes for that 
purpose can be used instead. Remove the surplus 
whiting with the dusting brush, and the work is then 
ready for the size. Apply this with a sable or fit brush 
of the proper size, carefully observing to make the 
outer lines of the design clear and sharp, that the 
work may not appear ragged. Let the size remain 
until it feels tacky, when the gold may be applied. 
^This is the most difficult part of the operation, and 
experience is necessary before gold leaf can be laid 
smoothly without a wrinkle or a break. Turn a leaf 
of gold out of the book upon the cushion; breathe 
gently upon the center of the leaf and it will lie flat 
on the cushion; cut it to the proper size by bringing 
the knife perpendicularly over it, and sawing it gently 
until divided. Take your tip (a brush used for the 
purpose) and after drawing it lightly over your hair 
to remove any particles or dust that may be upon it, 
breathe upon it gently, which will dampen it 



176 THE UP -TU- DATE 

sufficiently to cause the leaf of gold to adhere to it; 
lay the tip upon the leaf of gold and carefully 
transfer it to the work; blow upon it gently and it will 
straighten out and adhere. It may be rendered quite 
smooth by slightly dabbing it with a bit of cotton. 
In about an hour wash off the superfluous gold from 
the edges, with a sponge and water. If the article is 
to be exposed to the weather or much wear, the 
gilding may be varnished with copal varnish. 

Burnish Gilding. — As previously stated, this process 
requires a specially prepared foundation upon which 
to lay the gold, and as the preparation of this 
foundation is a distinct trade, the furniture dealer or 
cabinetmaker seldom finds it necessary to undertake 
it, the articles coming to his hand ready-prepared for 
gilding; but as in repairing picture frames, cornices, 
mirror frames, etc., it frequently becomes necessary 
to renew the foundation, a comprehensive description 
of the whole process is given. 

Preparing the "Woodwork. — After smoothing and 
dusting the work, coat the frames in every part with 
boiling-hot parchment size, as previously described, 
then mix a sufficient quantity of whiting with size to 
the consistency of thick cream, and with it by means 
of a brush, coat every part of the frame several, times, 
permitting each coat to become perfectly dry before 
proceeding with the next. The wood will thus be 
covered with a layer of hard whiting nearly or quite a 
sixteenth of an inch in thickness. The size must not 
be too thick, and when mixed with the whiting should 
not be so hot as the preliminary coat of size. 

Polishing. — When the preparations are quite dry, 
clean and polish them. To do this, wet a small piece 
at a time, and, with a smooth, fine piece of cloth, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 177 

dipped in water, rub the part till all . the bumps and 
inequalities are removed; and for those parts where 
the fingers will not enter, as the mouldings, etc., wind 
the wet cloth round a piece of wood, and by this 
means make the surface all smooth and ev^en alike. 

Where there is carved work, etc., it will sometimes 
be necessary to bring the mouldings to their original 
sharpness by means of chisels, gouges, etc., as the 
preparation will be apt to fill up all the finer parts oi 
the work, which must be thus restored. It is some- 
times the practice, after polishing, to go over the 
work once with fine yellow or Roman ocher; but this 
is rarely necessary. 

Applying the Size. — Select the proper gold size from 
the recipes previously given; add parchment size until 
it will just flow from the brush; make it quite hot, 
and apply it to the wood with a very soft brush, 
taking care not to make the first coat too thick; let 
it dry and give two or three successive coats, after the 
last brushing it with a stiff -brush to remove any 
inequalities. The work is then ready for the gold. 

Laying the Gold. — The manipulation of the gold leaf 
has been described under the heading Oil Gilding. In 
the paint now being described, size used (being water 
size, which, as previously explained, is permitted to 
become hard and dry after being applied) must be 
moistened to cause the gold leaf to adhere to it. For 
this purpose, with a long-haired camel-hair pencil, 
dipped in water, go over as much of the work as you 
intend the piece of gold to cover; then lay the gold 
upon it in the manner previously explained. Be sure 
that the part to which the gold is applied is 
sufficiently wet; indeed, it must be floating, or the 
gold will be apt to crack. Proceed in this manner a 



1/8 THE UP-TO-DATE 

little at a time, and do not attempt to cover too much 
at once, until by experience you are going to handle 
the gold with freedom. 

Burnishing. — When the work is covered with gold, 
set it by to dry; there is a particular state or degree 
of dryness, known only by experience, in which the 
moulding is in a fit state for burnishing; it will 
probably be ready to burnish in about eight or ten 
hours, but it will depend on the warmth of the room 
or state of the air. 

When it is ready, those parts intended to be 
burnished must be dusted with a soft brush; then, 
wiping the burnisher with a piece of soft wash-leather 
(quite dry), begin to burnish about an inch or two in 
length at a time, taking care not to bear too hard, but 
with a gentle and quick motion, applying the tool 
until all the parts of the surface are equally bright. 

Matting or Dead Gold. — Certain portions only of the 
work are burnished, according to the fancy, and the 
facility with which the burnishing tool can be applied; 
the remaining parts are now to be deprived of thejr 
metallic luster, to make a more effective contrast with 
the burnishing. The parts thus treated are said to be 
matted or dead gold. The process is as follows: 

Grind some vermilion or yellow ocher very fine, 
and mix a very small portion either with the parch- 
ment size or with the white of an Ggg, and with a very 
soft brush lay it evenly on the parts to be dulled; if 
well done, it will add greatly to the beauty of the 
work. Previous to matting, the work must be well 
cleared of superfluous gold, by means of a soft brush. 

Finishing. — In elaborate works it is frequently 
impossible to lay gold leaf into all the intricacies of 
an elaborate design, and the parts thus left bare must 



HARDWOOD FINISHER i^q 

be finished by touching up with a small brush charged 
with shell gold, or gold powder, mixed with gum 
Arabic to the proper consistency. The following 
recipe describes the preparation of shell gold: 

Shelled Gold. — Take any quantity of leaf gold and 
grind it with a small portion of honey, to a fine 
powder, add a little gum arable and sugar candy, with 
a little water, arid mix it well together; let it dry. 

Silver Size. — Grind pipe clay fine with a little black 
lead and good soap, and add parchment size as 
directed for gold size. 

Composition for Frame Ornaments. — The ornaments 
for gilded mirror frames, etc., are usually moulded 
from some plastic substance that is somewhat 
tougher and more durable than the ordinary gilding 
foundation of whiting and size. The proper moulds 
being prepared, they are thoroughly rubbed upon the 
inside with sweet oil, and the composition firmly 
pressed in; after removing the mould the cast may be 
dried by a gentle heat, or while still plastic it can be 
applied in its proper place and bent into any position. 
Following are recipes for composition: 

Dissolve I pound of glue in i gallon of water. In 
another kettle boil together 2 pounds of resin, i gill 
of Venice turpentine, and i pint of linseed oil; mix 
all together in one kettle, and boil and stir till the water 
has evaporated. Turn the whole into a tub of finely 
rolled whiting, and work till it is the consistency of 
dough. 

Boil 7 pounds of best glue in 7 half pints of water. 
Melt 3 pounds of white resin in 3 pints of raw linseed 
oil. When the above has been well boiled put them 
into a large vessel and simmer them for half an hour, 
stirring the mixture and taking care that it does not 



i8o THE UP-TO-DATE 

boil over. The whole must then be turned into a 
box of whiting rolled and sifted, and mixed till it is 
of the consistencN' of dough. 

To Manipulate Gold Leaf. — Get a piece of paper, thin 
enough to show shadow of gold leaf through, slightly 
wax it, lay it on gold leaf; the latter will then adhere, 
and can be easily worked and will come off clean. 
The paper should be slightly larger than the gold 
leaf, and the fingers passed over the paper to make 
the gold leaf adhere. 

Bronzing. — This is a process for imitating on metal, 
plaster, wood, or other material, the peculiar 
appearance produced by chemical action upon the 
surface of bronze metal. It is accomplished by 
spreading over the surface of the material to be 
ornamented a very thin coating of bronze powder, 
which is caused to adhere either by applying it 
directly upon a coating of any of the sizes mentioned 
in the foregoing pages, or by mixing with a vehicle, 
such as gum arabic or transparent varnish. The 
latter is most desirable, as in the other case, being 
subject to the direct action of the atmosphere, the 
bronze powder soon tarnishes. In ornamenting 
furniture, bronzing is generally employed to represent 
gilding, a variety of bronze called gold bronze being 
used, which affords an excellent imitation, but is not 
very lasting. It is usually applied after the com- 
pletion of the other finishing processes, the ground 
work being prepared in the manner described under 
Oil Gilding, and the size likewise applied as there 
described. A small wad of cotton batting is then 
dipped in the bronze and passed gently over the sized 
portions, causing the bronze to adhere. In the other 
method — that of applying the bronze by means of a 



HARDWOOD FINISHER i8i 

vehicle — the preliminaries of whiting the ground and 
sizing are not necessary, a small quantity of bronze 
being simply mixed with the vehicle employed to 
such a degree of fluidity that it will flow easily, and 
in that condition applied with a fine brush. Many 
preparations are used as vehicles, such as transparent 
varnish thinned with turpentine, gum arable dis- 
solved in water, and gold size reduced with parchment 
size. There are a variety of colors in bronze powders, 
and to produce the best effect the size or vehicle 
should be of a color similar to that of the bronze 
used; in gold size the coloring pigment is ocher, and 
in its place, for green bronze, or blue bronze, may be 
employed respectively verditer, vermilion or Prussian 
blue, a very small quantity being sufficient. In 
bronzing on painted work the ground should be as 
nearly as possible the color of the bronze to be 
applied. 

Banana Solution. — The so-called "banana solution" 
(the name being derived from its odor) which is used 
in applying bronzes of various, kinds is usually a 
mixture of equal parts of amyl acetate, acetone and 
benzine, with just enough pyroxylin dissolved therein 
to give it sufficient body. Powdered bronze is put 
into a bottle containing this mixture and the paint so 
formed applied with a brush to the article to be 
bronzed. The thin covering of pyroxylin that is left 
after the evaporation of the liquid protects the bronze 
from the air and keeps it from being wiped off by the 
cleanly housemaid. Tarnished picture frames and 
tarnished chandeliers to which a gold bronze has been 
applied from such a solution will look fresh and new 
for a long time. Copper bronze as well as gold bronze 
and the various colored bronze powders can be used 



i82 THE UP-TO-DATE 

in the "banana solution" for making very pretty 
advertising signs for use in the drug store. Lettering 
and bordering work upon the signs can be done with 
it. Several stiff, very small painter's ■ brushes are 
needed for such work and they must be either kept in 
the solution when not in use, or, better still, washed in 
benzine or acetone immediately after use and put away 
for future service. It is needless to add that as the 
"banana solution" is volatile it must be kept well 
corked. 

STAINING WOODWORK WITH ACIDS 

For staining wood brown, sulphuric acid, more or 
less diluted, according to the depth of stain desired, is 
applied to the wood, previously cleaned and dried 
with a brush, and when the acid has acted enough its 
further action is arrested by the application of liquid 
ammonia. 

To age oak artificially, liquid ammonia is laid on 
with a rag or brush, which does the work rapidly and 
effectually. 

To darken cherry, rub it over with nitric acid of 1.2 
specific gravity, and after permitting it to stand for 
twelve hours, wash and dry thoroughly. Nitric acid 
gives a permanent yellow stain, which may be con- 
\erted into dark brown by subsequent application of 
tincture of iodine. 

A hot, concentrated solution of picric acid gives a 
very fine yellow effect. Aqua fortis, diluted with 
three times its own weight of rain-water, brushed over 
the wood, gives a more true yellow effect than the 
undiluted nitric acid (aqua fortis). 

A bright golden yellow stain is made by digesting 
y^ ounce of powdered madder for twelve hours in 2 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 183 

ounces of sulphuric acid and then filtering through 
cloth. The articles to be stained should be immersed 
in the fluid for three or four days. 

ON HARDWOOD FLOORS 

The finish and care of hardwood or parquette floors 
has been and is now a source of great trouble and 
annoyance to housekeepers. In many cases where 
beautiful floors have been laid, they have been left to 
be finished by persons who have not troubled them- 
selves with finding out the best method of finishing, 
and the usual way for such persons to do is to treat 
them with shellac or varnish, says a writer in one of 
our exchanges. This is all wrong, as a moment's 
thought will convince any one that a surface that is 
constantly walked over needs something different from 
the coating of gum that is left on the surface after 
the spirit used in dissolving the shellac or varnish is 
evaporated. This coating then becomes brittle, and 
is ground up into minute particles by the nails in the 
boots and swept away, leaving the wood bare, right 
where it is most exposed to view. 

As a matter of course, the beauty of the floor is soon 
gone, and instead of being an attractive part of the 
furnishing, the sanitary consideration very often is 
about all that keeps one from nailing a carpet over the 
whole floor. Others use linseed oil, and everybody 
knows that an oil finish is one of the best methods of 
finishing wood, but the objection is, that each time 
the oil is applied it darkens the wood, and in a short 
time the different kinds of wood are of the same color. 

Now the question arises, which is the true and only 
way of finishing floors properly? And the answer is, 
by the use of hard wax, which, however, must be so 



i84 THE UP-TO-DATE 

prepared that the trouble of applying it and the 
stickiness attending ordinary beeswax and turpentine 
are entirely obviated. The wax is treated with special 
liquids and made into a preparation. 

Among the many different things tried, hard wax 
was found to be the most satisfactory in its results. 
It is so simple, that when once the floor has been 
properly filled and finished with it, any servant can 
renew and keep the floors fresh and bright as long as 
the wood lasts, and as it does not materially change 
the color, the wood always retains its beauty. An 
application about once a year is all that is necessary, 
if the floors are rubbed over, when a little dull, with a 
weighted brush or cloth. 

In repolishing old floors that have been in use for a 
length of time and become dull looking, it is only 
necessary, after they have been cleaned, to rub on a 
thin coat of the hard wax finish with the brush or 
cloth, as stated above. If the floors have been 
varnished and the varnish is worn off in places, as 
mentioned above, the best way is to have the varnish 
scraped off, and then a thin coat of the hard wax 
should be applied and treated as the new wood after 
it is filled. But if it is inconvenient to have the floor 
scraped, or the expense too much, the main object^ 
being to restore the color in those places which are 
worn and defaced, the following mixture is recom- 
mended: One part linseed oil, i part liquid dryer and 
2 parts turpentine; a cloth should be dampened with 
this and applied to the worn and defaced places, which 
will have the desired effect. After being wiped 
off clean, it ought to dry twenty-four hours, and then 
be polished with the hard wax finish. It is very 
important never to use the wax over oil that is not 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 185 

thoroughly dry, as the floor would invariably be 
sticky. 

Finally, it would be well to mention that hardwood 
or parquette floors should never be washed with soap 
and water, as it raises the grain and discolors the 
wood. After the floors have been properly filled and 
finished with the hard wax, dirt will not get into the 
pores, but stays on the surface and consequently can 
be removed with a brush or cloth, or, if necessary, 
dampen cloth with a little turpentine. This will take 
off any stain from the finish. 

An excellent method of waxing floors is as follows: 
Take i pound of the best beeswax, cut it up into very 
small pieces and let it thoroughly dissolve in 3 pints 
of turpentine, stirring occasionally, if necessary. The 
mixture should be only a trifle thicker than the clear 
turpentine. Apply with a rag to the surface of the 
floor, which should be perfectly clean. This is the 
difficult part of the work; for if too much or too little 
is put on a good polish is impossible. The right 
amount varies, less being required for a hard, close- 
grained wood, and more if the wood is soft and open- 
grained. Try a square foot or two at first. Put on 
what you think will be enough, and leave the place 
untouched and unstepped on for twenty-four hours, or 
longer, if needful. When thoroughly dry, rub with a 
hand brush. If it polishes well, repeat the whole proc- 
ess over the entire floor. If it does not, remove the 
wax with fine sandpaper, and lay again, using more or 
less than before, as may be necessary, and continue 
experimenting until the desired result is secured. If 
the mixture is slow in drying, add one part japan to 
six of turpentine. 

Birch makes an entirely satisfactory floor for dancing, 



i86 THE UP-TO-DATE 

as well as for kindred uses. It is easily brought to a 
smooth surface and a fine polish, and is of a rich 
amber color of an even shade. In addition, it has that 
rare elasticity and resiliency that make it alike delight- 
ful for walking and dancing. It costs about lo cents 
laid, and is in no way a disappointment to those using it. 

What is said of birch applies equally well to hard 
maple, both the white and the red varieties, the white 
being that chosen for floors, and is the lightest-colored 
of the woods so used. It is very hard, takes readily a 
fine polish; the boards are not liable to warp, but, 
unfortunately, require the very closest care in the 
drying to prevent shrinkage when laid. It is lasting, 
and is but little affected by water. Only beech, 
hickory and white oak approach it in lightness of 
color. Hickory has sterling qualities, too generally 
appreciated to need detailed discussion of its intrinsic 
worth, yet it is sadly neglected when the question of 
flooring is under consideration. Perhaps this is due 
to the difficulty with which it is laid. It is an open- 
grain wood, but takes polish with ease. 

Beech makes almost an ideal floor, light-colored and 
hard, and has the rare quality of wearing smoother 
with age; at times it is found beautifully bird's-eyed. 
In the Southern States it grows in the greatest profusion 
in the swamps and lower woods, but is unappreciated, 
only enough being preserved for use in making plane 
stocks and other tools requiring a hard, durable wood 
that does not shrink, warp or split. It could be laid 
for 20 cents per foot. And along with it goes apple, 
which polishes to a rich, delicate amber color; the cost 
being about the same as beech, but the apple wood 
has the tremendous disadvantage of not being obtain-> 
able in large boards. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 187 

The laying of a hardwood floor requires not only a 
good carpenter, but an expert judge of woods, and of 
the individual boards, because only by carefully 
selecting and placing like planks can we get a 
permanently even surface. Suppose a plank of heart 
and one of sap should be placed side by side; no 
matter what the wood, when a rainy season may come 
the sap will swell more and rise above the heart. 
Even when they come from like relative positions in 
two like trees, their texture may differ so widely as to 
make them undesirable companions. In spite of the 
nicest workmanship and the best judgment in select- 
ing, some inequalities of surface will be present till 
removed by the most thorough sandpapering. This 
should be done with enough care to avoid scratching; 
then comes the polishing. 

To get the best results, hardwood floors should be 
laid after the building is thoroughly dry, and in case 
of new building it should be the last work done. 

Care should be taken that the surface on which the 
floor is laid is clean and smooth. Drive the flooring 
well up and be careful not to break the tongue. 

Seven-eighths-inch flooring should be nailed with 
2^-inch special flooring nail. For ^-inch flooring 
l^-inch finishing nail, No. 15, will be found about 
right. 

An oak floor after being laid should be evenly 
cleaned off and sandpapered until perfectly smooth. 
It must then be filled with what is known as "wood 
filler," and allowed to stand forsix to ten hours. This 
filler can be made any shade desired. 

If a wax finish is desired, apply two light coats of 
white floor shellac. Let the first coat stand one hour 
before putting on the second, After the second coat 



1 88 



THE UP-TO-DATE 



has stood for two hours, sandpaper with No. o sand- 
paper and the floor is ready for the wax, an article 
made expressly for this purpose and ready for use. 

Put the wax on as thin as possible and let it stand 
for half an hour, then with a rubbing brush rub across 
the grain of the wood and again lengthways until the 




Fig. 117 

brush slips easily, then take a piece of soft carpet and 
rub until the desired polish is obtained. 

For maple, birch, or other close-grain woods, use 
the same process, omitting the "wood filler 

Estimate of Material Required. — P'or laying and finish- 
ing ^ flooring per lOO feet surface: lOO feet ^ floor- 
ing, 2^ pounds finishing brads No. 15, 3j^ pounds 
wood filler (for oak only), 3 pints shellac, j^ pound 



«• 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 189 

floor wax. For ^ flooring, 6 pounds 2}^-inch flooring 
nails will be sufficient per 100 feet. 

A weighted brush with a long handle is generally 
employed for polishing a wax-finished floor, similar to 
the one shown in Fig. 117. The wax is applied with a 
rag or brush, after the filler has been properly rubbed 
down and all is hard and dry. The weighted brush is 
then rubbed over the surface to and fro until the 
desired polish is attained. 

Stained Floors. — A floor stained to represent dark 
old oak is preferred by many. The mixture for 
accomplishing this is sold at all paint shops, and 
comes in grades i, 2, 3, and 4, varying from light to 
dark. If the boards are smooth and fine-grained, a 
satin wood or pitch pine stain or polish is preferred; 
but if the floor is old or rough it is folly to attempt 
any stain except that of dark oak or dark mahogany. 
Some of the mixtures used for this can be put on with 
a rag, although a brush is better. Pour the liquid into a 
saucer, dip the brush in, saturate thoroughly, rub evenly 
over the wood, and dry instantly with a soft cloth. 

For the ultra-fashionable floor, which is of a pale 
shade of oak, sized and varnished, buy the desired 
amount of raw sienna powder; mix with water, and 
rub into the boards as directed above. Mahogany 
staining: Make a mixture containing ^ pound of 
madder, 2 ounces of logwood chips, boiled in i gallon 
of water; brush this over the wood while hot. When 
dry, go over this with a solution of pearlash, 2 drachms 
to I of water, size and polish. If a redder shade is 
required, it can be produced by smearing the surface 
with a strong solution of permanganate of potash, 
which is left on for five minutes. The wood is then 
carefully washed, dried and polished. 



190 THE UP-TO-DATE 

A good cheap oak stain is made of equal parts of 
potash and pearlash, 2 ounces of each to a quart of 
water. As potash is a solvent, care must be taken to 
keep it from the hands; and an old brush should be 
used. 

For other stains and methods of applying them, see 
recipes described in previous pages, where stains for 
nearly all purposes are given. 

MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS 

Floor Polish. — Cut beeswax into small pieces, or else 
grate it up; add turpentine, and allow the mixture to 
stand for twelve hours; then heat it over the fire till 
it dissolves. Care must be taken not to heat the 
mixture too hot, and also the flame must not come too 
near, for explosive vapors are generated, which are 
liable to catch fire. 

Dull Polish on Stained Whitewood. — The dull polish 
that is seen on most furniture is obtained by partly 
French polishing the article, and then removing any 
apparent shine or gloss by well brushing the surface 
over with medium grade pumice-powder or fine emery; 
or the stained wood might be coated with spirit 
varnish. In the absence of details as to the purpose 
for which the stained wood is to be used, no other 
procedure can be suggested. Stained floor-boards, for 
instance, would not require French polishing, nor 
even spirit varnishing, because a suitable polish can 
be readily obtained by using beeswax dissolved in 
turpentine, applied with a weighted brush. On the 
other hand, on furniture goods French polish serves 
a double purpose; the polish partly fills the grain or 
pores of the wood, and gives a hard surface that can 
be dulled without rubbing off the stain. 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 191 

Refinishing Oak Doors that are Badly Weather- 
Stained. -^If possible, take the doors off the hinges and 
lay them down flat on some trusses or boxes, and 
remove the old varnish with ammonia or a mixture of 
2 parts strong ammonia and i part of turpentine and 
benzine, using a stubby brush to get into the cutwork 
and about the mouldings. When all the varnish has 
been removed, dope over stained portions with a 
strong oxalic acid solution, and see whether you can- 
not bleach the wood by that operation. If this will 
not work, you have to resort to staining. Use raw 
sienna for light effect, and, after staining, use paste 
wood filler, colored to match the stain. Then proceed 
as you would on new work. If the light stain does 
not hide the weather stains, you will be obliged to use 
a darker stain and darker filler. 

Coloring Wood Clear Through. — All the sap is expelled 
and the log is then treated with chemicals, and the 
color or colors are pressed into the wood. Any shade 
desired can be obtained, and, in fact, several colors 
can be merged one into the other, producing a very 
beautiful effect. On cutting up the samples we 
received, we found that the color was evenly dis- 
tributed all through the fibers, the grain of the wood 
giving a very pleasing effect, especially when polished. 
The wood, it is claimed, dries sooner than by ordinary 
seasoning, and it can also be rendered fireproof by 
adding special chemicals. Of course, painting is done 
away with, so that the natural structure of the wood 
is seen to better advantage than when painted in 
the ordinary way. The coloring is, we understand, 
free from arsenic and quite harmless; the colors do 
not fade, and, of course, cannot be worn off by rub- 
bing, etc. 



192 THK UP-TO-DATE 

Cleaning Polished Wood. A <^roocl encaustic, which 
will clean and polish at the same time, may be made 
from wax, sal soda and any good soap. The wax and 
soap should be shaved and dissolved in boiling water. 
Stir frequently and add the soda. Put the mixture in 
something which may be closely covered, and stir 
constantly until cool. This ma\' be applied to floors, 
furniture, marbles, tiles, bricks, etc. It will remove 
ink from polished surfaces. The F'rench use white wax 
on white marbles, but this is not absolutely necessary. 

Finishing Hardwood. — If it is open-grained wood I 
should first fill it with paste filler, then I would give it 
a coat of shellac, and after that I w^ould bring it up 
with a first-class varnish. 

It would be all right to finish it all in shellac if it 
could be kept from moisture, but wherever a drop of 
water touches a shellac finish it will turn white. And 
just as like as not the mistress will set the servants to 
wiping up the hardwood finish with a damp cloth. 
Now a good varnish will stand it, but shellac won't. 
But the best w^ay to clean furniture and hardwood 
work is to use crude oil — only a very little of it — and 
then wipe it off thoroughly with cotton waste or 
cheesecloth. The latter is preferable because it has 
no lint to catch on the woodwork, although if you rub 
it dry enough with cotton waste you can rub off any 
lint that may be left. The crude oil acts as a varnish 
renewer as well as a cleaner. But if it is not 
thoroughly wiped off with plenty of elbow grease it 
will catch the dirt and look pretty bad. Crude oil is 
a good thing, provided you don't use too much of it, 
and then, again, provided you don't leave it on. 

Making Paste Wood Fillers. — Paste fillers for hard 
woods are made from any of the following materials, 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 193 

or a combination of these: silex or silica, terra alba, 
whiting, china clay, starch, rye flour, and sometimes 
barytes. Silex or terra alba will, on drying, give the 
least discoloration to the wood. The pigment should 
be of impalpable fineness and intimately mixed to a 
stiff paste with one-third each of pale linseed oil, pale 
gold size japan and turpentine. This paste may be 
either run through a mill or be given a very thorough 
mixing, and to test it for quality it should be thinned 
with turpentine to the consistency of a varnish, applied 
with a varnish brush to open-grained wood, preferably 
oak, allowed to set for about twenty to thirty minutes, 
and the surplus filler removed by wiping across the 
grain in the usual manner. After twenty-four to 
thirty-six hours, the surface should be lightly sand- 
papered and a good, flowing coat of rubbing varnish 
applied, which, when fairly well set, should not show 
any pitting or pin holes. Should it pit, however, or 
show pin holes or needle points, the filler is defect- 
ive in binding properties, and the portion of japan 
should be increased, with a corresponding decrease in 
the proportion of turpentine. The linseed oil and the 
gold size japan must be of good body, and if corn- 
starch or rye flour is used in connection with silex or 
silica, the proportions should be about one of the 
former to five of the latter by weight. 

Filler for White Ash. — As white ash is a very porous 
wood, it should be treated with an extra light mineral 
paste wood filler, made from clean silex, mixed with 2 
parts bleached linseed oil, 3 parts pale japan gold size 
and I part turps, to stiff paste and thinned for use 
with turpentine to the consistency of medium-bodied 
varnish. When dry and hard the surface should be 
smooth sandpapered and given a coat of white shellac 



194 THE UP-TO-DATE 

varnish, after which it may be finished with rubbing 
varnish, that may be rubbed and polished in the 
ordinary way. 

Good Wood Finish. — Richness of effect may be 
gained in decorative woodwork by using woods of 
different tone, such as amaranth and amboyna, by 
inlaying and veneering. The Hungarian ash and 
French walnut afford excellent veneers, especially the 
burs or gnarls. In varnishing, the varnishes used can 
be toned down to match the wood, or be made to 
darken it, by the addition of coloring matters. The 
patented preparations, known as "wood fillers," are 
prepared in different colors for the purpose of pre- 
paring the surface of wood previous to the varnishing. 
They fill up the pores of the wood, rendering the 
surface hard and smooth. For polishing mahogany, 
walnut, etc., the following is recommended: Dissolve 
beeswax by heat in spirits of turpentine until the 
mixture becomes viscid; then apply, by a clean cloth, 
and rub thoroughly with a flannel or cloth. A common 
mode of polishing mahogany is by rubbing it first with 
linseed oil, and then wnth a cloth dipped in very fine 
brickdust; a good gloss may also be produced by 
rubbing with linseed oil, and then holding trimmings 
or shavings of the same material against the work in 
the lathe. Glass-paper, followed by rubbing, also gives 
a good luster. 

There are various means of toning or darkening 
woods for decorative effect, such as logwood, lime, 
brown soft soap, dyed oil; sulphate of iron, nitrate of 
silver exposed to sun's rays, carbonate of soda, 
bichromate and permanganate of potash, and other 
alkaline preparations are all used for darkening woods. 
The last three are specially recommended. The 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 195 

solution is applied by dissolving i ounce of the alkali 
in 2 gills of boiling water, diluted to the required 
tone. The surface is saturated with a sponge or 
flannel, and immediately dried with soft rags. The 
carbonate is used for dark woods. Oil tinged with 
rose madder may be applied to hardwoods like birch, 
and a red oil is prepared from soaked alkanet root in 
linseed oil. The grain of yellow pine can be brought 
out by two or three coats of japan much diluted with 
turpentine, and afterwards oiled and rubbed. To give 
mahogany the appearance of age, lime water used 
before oiling is a good plan. In staining wood, the 
best and most transparent effect is obtained by 
repeated light coats of the same. For oak stain a 
strong solution of oxalic acid is employed; for 
mahogany, dilute nitrous acid. A primary coat, or a 
coat of wood fillers, is advantageous. For mahogany 
stains the following are given: 2 ounces of dragons' 
blood dissolved in i quart of rectified spirits of wine, 
well shaken; or raw sienna in beer, with burnt sienna 
to give the required tone; for darker stains boil y^, 
pound of madder and 2 ounces of logwood chips in i 
gallon of water, and brush the decoction while hot 
over the wood. When dry, paint with a solution of 2 
ounces of potash in i quart of v/ater. A solution of 
permanganate of potash forms a rapid and excellent 
brown stain. 

Easy Method of Finishing Woodwork. — French polish- 
ing as a means of finishing furniture and woodwork is 
generally regarded as a most tedious operation, owing 
to the number of solutions to be used on work that is 
built up of various kinds of wood, in bringing it up to 
uniform color, and in polishing it so as to bring out 
and reflect to the fullest extent the markings or figure 



196 THE UP-TO-DATE 

of the wood. On high-^radc goods, with a bright, 
lustrous, level finish this is so. Yet much furniture is 
not of high-grade finish, so far as the polisher 
is concerned; for instance, bedroom furniture that is 
stained green is rarely finished out extra bright, and 
the same may be said of fumed oak goods and many 
American organs. In fact, some goods look far bettei 
with a faintly lustrous polished surface than if finished 
out very bright, especially if the surface is at all 
uneven or badly cleaned up. A process of finishing 
known as "dry shining" strikes a medium between 
high-grade finish and simple spirit varnishing. In the 
crudest form of this process the work is simply oiled 
and a wet rubber of polish applied all over, not 
sufificient being used to fill the grain, but just enough 
to kill the oil. This treatment is generally considered 
good enough for the insides of drawers, cupboards, 
etc., the object being to remove an unfinished 
appearance and to prevent the surface getting as dirty 
as it otherwise might. From this better degrees of 
finish may be reached. The work may be oiled, filled 
in, one or more rubbers of polish laid on just to fill 
up the grain, and then an even coat of spirit varnish 
applied. If the articles are of white wood, they may 
be stained to imitate some choicer wood before 
oiling; and if the goods are likely to be subject to 
hard wear, the coating of spirit varnish may be 
omitted, the polish being worked out fairly dry to 
ensure the removal of all oil; then apply a coat of 
oak or painter's varnish, which, however, gives a 
bright surface when dry, and is merely mentioned as 
a means of obtaining a bright finish with the minimum 
of trouble. 

Egg-shell finish also does not require the trouble- 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 197 

some operation of spiriting out. Here the work is 
brought up to a stage nearly approaching that for 
spiriting, but the surface of polish when hard is dulled 
by rubbing or brushing with fine-grade pumice-stone 
powder or flour emery, in which condition it may be 
left. If a gloss instead of a shine is preferred, the 
wood should have a smart rubbing of beeswax and 
turps. Black work has a specially chaste appearance 
thus finished, and the black' stain of logwood and 
iron solution may be used, aniline spirit black being 
employed for imparting density of color to pale 
shellac polish. If it is not convenient to use varnish, 
and a simple solution of shellac in spirits (4 ounces 
orange shellac dissolved in i pint methylated spirit) 
is the only solution at hand, a passable finish may still 
be gained by enclosing the pad in a piece of soft rag 
and finishing out by working it in straight lines, after 
a body has been put on without a covering. When 
the articles must be stained, it will be found more 
economical to buy the stains ready-made if only a 
small quantity is required. Dry shining has at least 
the merit of building up a surface that can be taken in 
hand again and French polished. 

Metallization of Wood. — Some artisans in Germany 
have succeeded in turning to practical account the 
recently devised process by which wood is made to 
take on some of the special characteristics of metal, 
that is, the surface becomes so hard and smooth as to 
be susceptible of a high polish, and may be treated 
with a burnisher of either glass or porcelain; the 
appearance of the wood being then in ever}^ respect 
that of polished metal, having, in fact, the semblance 
of a metallic mirror, but with this peculiar and 
advantageous difference, namely, that, unlike metal, 



198 THK UP-TO-DATE 

it is lUKilTcctcd l)y moisture. To reach this result, the 
wood is steeped in a bath of caustic alkali for two or 
three days, accordin<^- to its degree of permeability, at 
a temperature of between 164° and 197° Fahr, ; it is 
then placed in a second bath of hydrosulphate of 
calcium, to which a concentrated solution of sulphur is 
added, after some twenty-four or thirty-six hours; the 
third bath is one of acetate of lead, at a temperature 
of from 95° to 122°, and in this latter the wood is 
allowed to remain from thirty to fifty hours. After 
being subjected to a thorough drying it is in a con- 
dition for being polished with lead, tin or zinc, as may 
be desired, finishing the process with a burnisher, when 
the wood apparently becomes a piece of shining, 
polished metal. 

How to Tone Down New Mahogany, Oak, etc. — In 
making repairs to furniture, it usually happens that 
the new wood is considerably lighter in tone than the 
old, and ordinary stains will not match it so as to give 
satisfaction. This can be done easily, however, by 
means of a solution of bichromate of potash. To 
make this, purchase a cent's worth of the chemical, 
and placing it in an ordinary medicine bottle, fill up 
with water and shake until dissolved. To use the 
solution, rub a small quantity on the wood to be 
darkened, and await results. If not dark enough, give 
another coat. It dries in a few minutes, and can be 
sandpapered after, as it is not a surface stain, but a 
chemical one. By a judicious use of the above 
solution it is easy to match old work of any description, 
so that the new and old cannot be distinguished from 
each other. 

Spirit Varnish for Violins. — Spirit varnish is difficult 
to apply evenly, owing to its drying so quickly. The 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 199 

color generally appears streaky. In any case, no 
shellac should be used in the varnish, as shellac is too 
hard. A good spirit varnish is made as follows: 
First size the violin with a mixture of 3 parts of best 
copal varnish and i part of turpentine, applied hot 
with a rag, and well rubbed in. Color ^ pint of 
alcohol with turmeric and a little red sanders added to 
take away the greenish tinge. Dissolve 2 ounces of 
gum sandarach (juniper) in ^ pint of alcohol. Put 
the two half-pint mixtures together, and add 2 table- 
spoonfuls of Venice turpentine and 2 ounces of white 
shellac. Whe.n dissolved, filter through cotton wool. 

Putting Transfers on Coach Panels. — The method of 
transferring crests and monograms to the panels of 
coaches, etc., is as follows: Cover carefully the face 
of the design (that is, the colored or printed side) with 
a thin, smooth coat of gold size mixed with two or 
three drops of varnish, being careful to cover all parts 
that are to be transferred. Let the gold size coating 
become thoroughly tacky or sticky, then lay the design 
face downward on the panel to be decorated, and roll 
it down smoothly with a rubber roller, pressing out all 
air bubbles. When the adhesive has got quite dry, 
thoroughly soak the paper with water by means of a 
sponge, then gently peel off the paper from one 
corner. Sponge the surface composition off the 
panel, and when the design is quite dry, apply a 
finishing coat of varnish. Transfers can also be applied 
without coating them with gold size, if the panels 
have been recently varnished, and have a good tack 
(that is to say, when the varnish is sticky , as the 
design will then adhere by gentle pressure. 

Paint for Blackboards. — The best blackboard paint is 
made by moistening 4 ounces dry lampblack with 



200 THE UP-TO-DATE 

alcohol, rubbing it out with a spatula, gradually 
adding i quart of shellac varnish, and stirring into 
this 3 ounces flour of pumice and 3 ounces finely 
pulverized rotten stone; then straining through a fine 
sieve or strainer to break up any lumps that may have 
formed. This is applied quickly to the bare wood, so 
that no laps are formed, and in a day or so a second 
coat may be applied, and after standing a day or two 
longer may be haired or mossed. 

Ebonizing. — Apply to the wood, by means of a brush 
or sponge, a solution of hydrochloric aniline dissolved 
in water, to which has been added a little protochlo- 
ride of copper. When this coating has dried, apply 
similarly a solution of bichromate of potash dissolved 
in water. After this process has been repeated two, 
or at the most three, times, the wood will assume a 
clear, full, durable black color, which is affected 
neither by the action of light nor dampness. 

Polishing Boxwood Draughtmen. — The cheaper class of 
draughtmen are simply coated with a good quality 
spirit varnish, but high-grade goods are polished in the 
lathe. The polish that is used and the method of 
applying the polish differ slightly from the method 
that is employed in polishing flat surfaces. A bright 
finish on both sides and edges is only obtained after 
several handlings, the chief difficulty being the 
manipulation in the early stages, such as the provision 
of suitable chucks, the avoidance of the use of glass- 
paper, and the knack of using the polish so that it 
will not clog up the finer grooves. If ordinary French 
polish is used, it should not be applied with new 
wadding; a wad made from a rubber that has been used 
on other work should be employed, so that there may 
be less risk of loose fluff sticking to the work while the 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 201 

polishing is being done. The wad would not require 
the rag covering that is usual on flat surfaces. If a 
lathe is not available, very good results could be 
obtained by usinrj polish for sealing up the pores of 
the wood and forming a smooth foundation, and then 
applying carefully a coating of good quality clear 
spirit varnish. Black goods should be stained first 
with French black water stain, and the polishing done 
with black polish. White polish made from bleached 
shellac, or a transparent polish, should be used in 
preference to polish that is made from orange or lemon 
shellac. 

Softening Putty. — To soften putty that has become 
hard by exposure, so as to remove it easily from a 
sash, take i pound of pearlash and 3 pounds of quick- 
stone lime; slake the lime in water, then add the 
pearlash, and make the whole of about the consistency 
of paint; apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it 
remain for twelve hours, when the putty will be so 
softened that the glass may be taken out of the frame 
with the greatest facility. 

Bruises in Wood. — To take out bruises in furniture, 
wet the part with warm water; double a piece of brown 
paper five or six times, soak it, and lay it on the place; 
apply on that a hot flatiron till the moisture is 
evaporated. If the bruise be not gone, repeat the 
process. After two or three applications, the dent or 
bruise will be raised level with the surface. If the 
bruise be small, merely soak it with warm water, and 
apply a red-hot poker very near the surface; keep it 
continually wet, and in a few moments the bruise will 
disappear. 

Wood Stains. — The following have been published by 
a German paper as formulae for some wood stains, 



202 THE UP-TO-DATE 

which may be put up in a dry form, and when wanted 
for use may be readily dissolved in water: Oak wood: 
5 kg. of Cassel brown, .5 kg. of potash, and 10 kg. of 
rain-water, boiled together for an hour, the whole 
strained through a linen cloth, and the clear, dark- 
colored liquid boiled to a syrupy consistency. Walnut 
wood: A decoction of Cassel brown, 3 kg.; potash, .3 
kg.; and water, 7 kg.; the whole strained through 
linen, and during evaporation to syrup 2.5 kg. of 
extract of logwood added. Mahogany: A decoction 
of extract of Brazil wood, 3 kg.; potash, .25 kg., and 
water, 3 kg ; to which, before evaporating to syrup, 
150 gr. of eosine are added. Ebony: 5 kg. of extract 
of logwood, boiled with 11 kg. of water, and, when 
near the syrupy state, 300 gr. of iron nitrate added; 
evaporated to a syrup under constant stirring. All 
the above stains are brought into a dry condition by 
running the respective syrups into trays of sheet iron, 
with low rims, in which the syrup hardens, and is 
afterward broken up and ground. 

It is often desirable to retain the grain of the natural 
wood exposed to view, at the same time to preserve 
its surface from decay and give it a more beautiful 
appearance; this is done either by polishing or 
varnishing. To varnish such woods a little skill is 
required to obtain a really good gloss, smooth as 
glass, upon its surface. All roughness should be 
carefully removed, being particular not to leave any 
marks, especially across the grain, of the sandpaper 
or other material used in smoothing, and the work 
should be afterwards well sized, either with gelatine 
or good glue size. This size is to prevent the 
absorption of the varnish in soft places, and to obtain 
a more even gloss. Sizing sometimes has a tendency 



HARDWOOD FINISHER 203 

to raise the grain of the wood, more particularly of 
soft wood, especially if applied warm. Use oak 
varnish. 

Aniline Dyes. — Aniline dyes are of two kinds, one 
dissolving in water, the other in spirits. As they have 
a tendency to fade in the light, the water dyes are 
preferable, as they can be mixed with a little vinegar, 
this greatly hindering the fading out process. To dis- 
solve in spirits, use a spirit varnish, such as painters 
use. No definite amount necessary to stain varnish 
can be given, and it will be necessary to experiment 
with it. 



INDEX TO PART ONE 



A. 

American woods, 12 
Apple wood, 15 
A patent glue-pot, 47 
A diagram of planes, 86 

B. 

Bevel dovetailing, 31 
Bevel scrapers, 71 
Blind nailing, 96 

C. 

Characteristics of woods, 13 
Carving woods, 15 
Construction, 40 
Clamping veneers, 42 
Cauls, 51 
Cross-cut saws, 77 

D. 

Details of wainscot, 18 
Drawing spiral baluster, 21 
Dovetailing, 22 
Dovetailing, plain, 23 
Dovetail pins, 25 
Dovetail mortises, 25 
Dovetailing, tap, 27 
Dovetailing, miter, 29 
Dovetailing, bevel, 31 
Daniels planer work, 34 
Doors, 35 
Doors, wedges, 42 
Diagrams for veneer, 57 
Dry material for work, 60 
Diagrams of scraper, 69 
Diagram of cutting edge, 70 
Defective sharpening of scrap- 
er, 72 
Dovetailing saw, 78 
Determining pitch of saw teeth, 

83 
Direction of grain in planes, 85 
Diagrams of cutting pitches, 91 
Diagrams for blind nailing, 97 



E. 

Elevation and section of oak 
wainscot, 19 

Equipment for making hard- 
wood doors, 36 



Flatting work, 49 
File-sharpening a scraper, 69 
Files and rasps, 74 
Filing a saw, 78 
Fixing planes, 87 

G. 

Glued up stuff for doors, 36 

Glue-pot, patent, 37 

Gluing horse, 37 

Gluing frame, 38 

Gluing up stuff for general 

work, 39 
Gluing up joints, 46 

H. 

Hardwoods generally, 16 
Hardwood wainscot, 17 
How to use a scraper, 63 
How to hold a scraper, 64 
How to sharpen a .r^craper, 65 
Holding a scraper, 67 
Handled scraper, 72 
How to use sandpaper, 74 
Hand saws, 77 
How to file a saw, 80 
Hag's tooth, 93 
How to set a plane iron, 93 
How to sharpen plane irons on 
oilstone, 95 



Introduction, 7 
Inserting plane irons, 89 

J. 

Jointing, 50 
Jack planes, 85 



?05 



206 



INDEX TO PART ONE 



L. 

Laying out dovetailing, 23 
Lap dovetailing, 27 
Laying out saw teeth, 83 
Laving hold of smoothing plane, 
88 

M. 

Miter dovetailing, 30 
Mitered splay dovetailing, 32 
Moulded panels, 42 
Mortising doors, 43 
Mortising tools, 44 
Metal cauls, 52 

Method of veneering columns, 56 
Making saw teeth uniform 

length, 82 
Method of sighting iron in 

planes, 88 

P. 

Preface, 5 
Planer work, 34 
Preparation for veneering, 48 
Polish for scraper, 65 
Patent scraper, 72 
Planes generally, 84 
Planes — how to use, 86 
Pitch of plane irons, 91 

R. 
Remarks on veneering, 48 
Round corner scraper, 62 
Rules for scraper sharpening, 70 
Round and hollow scrapers, 73 
Rasps and files, 74 
Rip saws, 76 
Regulating the saw teeth, 82 

S. 
Spiral baluster or newel, 21 
Section and elevation of oak 

wainscot, 19 
Secret lap dovetailing, 28 
Surplus glue, rubbing out, 45 



Sizing up work for gluing, 48 
vScrapers, 61 

Scrapers witli iiandles, 61 
Saw plate scrapers, 62 
Sharpening a scraper, 64 
Siiarpening on oilstone, 68 
Sharpening by using a file, 69 
Sandpaper blocks, 74 
Saws for hardwood, 75 
Saw teeth, 78 
Setting a saw, 79 
Sharpening tenon saws, 81 
Squaring over saw teeth, 83 
Smoothing planes, 87 
Sighting plane iron, 88 
Setting in plane iron, 89 
Stones for sharpening plane 

iron, 94 
Secret nailing, 96 

T. 

The better woods to make use 

of, 16 
The choice of glue, 45 
Tenon saws, 78 
Trying planes, 86 

V. 

Veneers, 40 
Veneering, 41 
Veneeriiig by cauls, 51 
Veneering round and tapering 

columns, 55 
Veneering small work, 58 
Veneering beveled picture 

frames, 59 
Varieties of scrapers, 73 

W. 

Wood discussed, 10 
Woods of various kinds, 12 
Wedged doors, 42 
\\'ood scrapers, 61 
Wood planes, 86 



INDEX TO PART TWO 



A. 

Ash stain, 59 

Another poHsh recipe, 75 

A good poUsh, 76 

A pohsh that will stand water, 

76 
A French polish reviver, 77 
Antique oak, 94 
Another method of darkening 

oak, 119 
Austrian oak, 123 
An egg-shell finish, 141 
A polished finish, 141 
Ash wood, 148 

A method of finishing ash, 149 
A method of staining wood, 157 
A brown stain, 158 
A dark dye, 159 
A fine yellow dye, 161 
A fine blue dye, 161 
A bright yellow dye, 161 
Applying the size, 176 
Aniline dyes, 203 

B. 

Black, 26 

Brazil wood, 27 

Blackboard wash, 29 

Blue, 32 

Brown, 33 

Brushes for varnishing, 63 

Brushes for flowing, 65 

Bodying in and spiriting off, 78 

Black oak, 123 

Black birch, 131 

Birch wood, 131 

Beech wood, 150 

Beech finishing, 151 

Bright yellow dye, 160 

Bright green dye, 161 

Bright red dye, 161 

Burnish gilding, 176 

Burnishing, 178 



Bronzing, 180 
Banana solutions, 181 
Bruises in wood, 201 

C. 

China clay wood filler, 10 

Cherry wood filler, 14 

Cleaning off filling, 18 

Coloring and matching, 108 

Cherry, 128 

Cypress, 135 

Cedar, white, 150 

Composition for frame orna- 
ments, 179 

Coloring wood right through, 
191 

Cleaning polished wood, 192 

D. 

Dark mahogany, 44 
Darkening oak, 47 
Darkening walnut, 54 
Dead finish, 77 
Dry shining, 99 
Dyeing woods, 159 
Dyeing blue, 161 
Dyeing yellow, 161 
Dyeing green, 162 
Dyeing red, 162 
Dull polish on stained white- 
wood, 190 

E. 

Ebonizing, 34 
Egg-shell finish, 141 
Egg-shell gloss, 146 
Ebonizing with shellac, 153 
Ebonizing methods, 154 
Estimating cost of floors, 188 
Easy method of finishing wood- 
work, 195 
Ebonizing, 200 



207 



208 



INDEX TO PART TWO 



Filler for li^lit woods, l.'j 
Filler for (iierry, 14 
Filler for oak, 14 
Filler for rosewood, 14 
Filling" with ])laster of Paris 15 
Filler for redwood, 17 , 
Floors, 40 

Freiieh polishing, 66 
First luid best recipe, 74 
Finishing oak, 113 
Fumigated oak, 116 
Flemish oak, 122 
Fumigated oak, 125 
For remo\ing polish and re- 
staining oak, 127 
Finishing black birch, 131 
Finishing mahogany, 132 
Finishing redwood, 141 
For an egg-shell gloss, 141 
For a dull finish, 141 
For a polished finish, 141 
For a walnut finish, 142 
For mahogany and cherrv fin- 
ish, 143 
For rosewood finish, 143 
For an egg-shell gloss, 146 
For a dull finish, 147 
For a polished finish, 147 
Finishing maple, 148 
For a brown stain, 157 
For a black dye, 159 
Fine blue dye, 161 
Fine yellow dye, 161 
Finishing good work, 178 
Flooring generally, 187 
Floor polish, 190"^ 
Finishing hardwood, 192 
Filler for w^hite ash, 193 

G. 

Gas black, 29 
Green stains, 43 
Gray, 43 
Glaze polish, 91 
German finishing, 106 
Golden oak, 121 
Green dyes, 162 
Gray dyes, 164 

Gilding, bronzing and composi- 
tion, 164 



Gilding miri'or frame, 166 

(lilding furniture, 171 

(lold size, 173 

Ciold adhering, to prevent, 173 

Gold wood finish, 194 

H. 

Hendock wood, 151 
Hendock finishing, 152 
Hardwood floors, 183 
How^ to tone down new work, 
198 

I. 

Imitation oak stain, 145 
Imitation mahogany stain, 145 
Imitation rosewood stain, 145 
Imitation walnut stain, 145 

L. 

Ijuxeberry finish, 23 
Licjuid slating, 29 
Light mahogany, 44 
Liquid for brightening and set- 
ting colors, 163 
Laying the gold, 177 

M. 

Mahogany stains, 44 
Mahogany, dark, 44 
Mahogany, light, 44 
Manufacturers' polish, 80 
Making antique oak, 117 
Mahogany wood, 147 
Maple wood, 147 
Matting or dead gold. 178 
Making paste wood fillers, 192 
Metallization of wood, 197 

N. 

Next best recipe, 75 
New floors, 187 

O. 

Oil filling, 11 

Oak filler, 14 

Oak wood, 47 

Other French polish recipes, 75 

Oil finishing and dry shining, 99 

Oak, fumigated, 116 

Oak staining generally, 124 



INDEX TO PART TWO 



±og 



Other woods, 150 

Orange dyes, 163 

Oil size, 173 

Oil gilding, 175 

On hardwood floors, 183 



Picking sticks, 18 

Picking brushes, 19 

Purple stain, 49 

Polishing w^ad, 69 

Prepared spirits, 76 

Polish for turners' work, 77 

Pine wood, 142 

Pine finish, 142 

Purple dyes, 163 

Parchment size, 173 

Preparing the woodwork, 176 

Polishing, 176 

Putting transfers on coach 
panels, 199 

Paint for blackboards, 199 

Polishing boxwood draught- 
men, 200 

R. . 

Rosewood filler, 14 
Red stain, 50 
Rubber for polishing, 68 
Rules for polishing, 73 
Repolishing and reviving, 104 
Red oak, 123 
Regarding cypress, 135 
Rosewood generally, 138 
Rosewood finish, 139 
Redwood, 141 
Red dyes, 162 
Refinishing oak doors, 191 

S. 

Surfacing finish, 21 
Sizing work, 24 
Stahiing black, 26 
Satin wood, 52 
Staining oak brown, 59 
Shellac polish, 81 
Styles of oak finish, 120 
Sycamore wood, 151 
Sycamore finishing, 151 
Stains of all kinds, 155 



Staining carved panels, 158 

Staining spirit varnish, 158 

Silver gray dye, 164 

Sizes, 173 

Shelled gold, 179 

Silver size, 179 

Staining woodwork with acids, 

182 
Stained floors, 189 
Spirit varnish for violins, 198 
Softening putty, 201 



The finishing of various woods, 

112 
The rules for finishing oak, 113 
To darken oak, 119 
To finish cherry, 128 
The mahogany stains, 133 
To manipulate gold leaf, 179 

V. 

Varnishing floors, 41 
Violet stain, 52 
Varnishing and polishing, 59 
Verde or green finish, 123 

W. 

Wood fillers and how to use 

them, 7 
Wheeler's wood filler, 8 
Walnut filler, No. 1, 13 
Walnut filler, No. 2, 13 
Wood staining generally, 25 
Walnut wood, 52 
Walnut stains, 53 
Wad for polishing, 69 
Wax polishing, 93 
Wax and turpentine, 95 
Wax mixture, 96 
Weathered oak, 123 
Walnut finishing generally, 135 
White pine finishing, 142 
Wliite cedar, 150 
Wood stains, 201 

Y. 

Yellow stain, 55 
Yellow dye, dark, 161 
Yellow dve, bright, 161 



Fred T. Ho(tgson*s Hew (1903) Books For Builders 

STEEL SQUARE 

A TREATISE OF THE PRAGTiGAL USES OF 

By FRED, T. HODGSON, Architect, 

ilew and up-to-date. Published May 1st, 1903. Do not mistake this edition 
for the one published over 20 years ago. 

This is the latest practical work on 
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and Distances— very useful to builders 
and estimators. Chapters on roofing 
and how to form them by the aid of 
the Square. Octagon, Hexagon, Hip 
and other roofs are shown and ex- 
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the rafters and jacks given. Chapters 
on heavy timber f ramin g , showing how 
the Square is used for laying out Mor- 
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Work, Angle Corners and similai 
work. The work also contains a large number of diagrams, showing how 
the Square may be used in finding Bevels, Angles , Stair Treads and bevel 
cuts for Hip, Valley, Jack and other Rafters, besides methods for laying 
out Stair Strings, Stair Carriages and Timber Structures generally. Also 
contains 25 beautiful halftone illustrations of the perspective and floor plans 
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The work abounds with hundreds of fine illustrations and explana* 
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Two large volumes, 560 pages, nearly 500 illustrations, printed on a 
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Price. 2 Vols., cloth binding $2.00 

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FREDERICK J. DRAKE ®, CO. 

PUBLISHERS OF SELF-EDUCATIONAL BOOKS 
211 E. MADISON STILEET y* ^ CHICAGO 




Modern Carpentry 

A PRACTICAL MANUAL 



FOR CARPENTERS AND WOOD WORKERS GENERALLIf 

yl'RED T. Hodgson, Architect, Editor of the National Builder, Practical 
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ANEW, complete guide, containing hundreds of quidcl 
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Common-Sense Handrailings 
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By FRED T.HODGSON 



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With many tables, rules and useful 

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BY 

FRED T. HODGSON 

Member of O. A. A. 

Author of Treatise on the Uses of the 
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HODGSON'S 

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Arranged and Edited by 

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ArcKitect 

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'f >«;-;f-E'iui.atioD-'l Books for Mechanics 



2II-2I3 E:^t Madiion Street 



CHICAGO. U.S^ 



r 



Farm Engines and How 

4g^ Dmmn Thg^mwm =™^ young= 

Mu M%un M nan engmeer^s guide 

By STEPHENSON, MAGGARD A CODY, Expert Engineer a 




Fully illustrated with about 75 beautiful 

woodcuts. A complete Instructor 

for the operator or amateur. 

The book first gives a simple 
description of every part of a 
boiler and traction or simple sta- 
tionary engine, with definitions 
of all the technical terms com- 
monly used. This is followed by 
over 80 test questions covering 

U^^^'^y>^ ^^^^^jL every point that precedes. Then 
< III ^ i"'iiii(lH' come simple and plain directions 

to the young engineer as to how 
to set up and operate his engine 
and boiler, followed by questions 
and answers as to what should be 
done in every conceivable diffi- 
culty that may arise, covering 
such subjects as scale in the boiler, economical firing, sparks, 
pressure, low water and danger of explosions, lining and 
gearing the engine, setting the valves, oiling, working injector 
and pump, lacing and putting on belts, etc. There are two 
chapters on Farm Engine Economy, giving the theory of the 
steam engine, especially in its practical applications to secur- 
ing economy of operation. Chapter XII, describes "Different 
Types of Engines," including stationary, compound, Corliss 
and high speed engines, and all the leading makes of traction 
engines with an illustration of each. Also chapter on gasoline 
engines and how to run them, and another on how to run a 
threshing masfeine. The book closes with a variety of useful 
recipes and practical suggestions and tables, and 175 questions 
and answers often given in examinations for engineer's license. 
Beautifully illustrated with plans, etc. 

12MO CLOTH. PRICE $1.00. 
Sent prepaid to any address upon receipt of price. 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBUSHERS 



JUST THE BOOK FOR BEGINNFRS AND ELECTRICAL WORKERS 

WHOSE OPPORTUNITIES FOR GAINING INFORMATION ON 

THE BRANCHES OF ELECTRICITY HAVE BEEN LIMITED 



ELECTRICITY 

Made Simple 

By CLARK CARVL HASKINS 

A BOOK DEVOID OF 

TECHNICALITIES 

SIMPLE, PLAIN AND 

UNDERSTANDABLE 

There are many elementary books about 
electricity upon the market but this is 
the first one presenting the matter in 
such shape that the layman may under- 
stand it, and at the same time, not ■writ- 
ten in a childish manner. 

FOR ENGINEERS, DYNAMO MEN, 
FIREMEN. LINEMEN. WIREMEN AND 
LEARNERS. FOR STUDY OR 
REFERENCE. 

This little work is not intended for the instruction of experts, nor as 
a guide for professors. The author has endeavored throughout the book 
to bring the matter down to the level of those whose opportunities for 
gaining information on the branches treated have been limited. 

Four chapters are devoted to Static Electricity ; three each to Chemi- 
cal Batteries and Light and Power; two each to'Terrestrial Magnetism 
and Electro-Magnetism ; one each to Atmospheric Electricity ; Lightning 
Rods; Electro - Chemistry ; Applied Electro -Magnetism; 'Force. Work 
and Energy; Practical A^pplicatiou of Ohms Law: also a chapter upon 
Methods of Developing Electricity, other than Chemical. 

The large number of examples that are given to illustrate the practi- 
cal application of elementary principles is gaining for it a reputation as 
a text book for schools and colleges. 

In reviewing this book an eminent electrician says of it : 

'•All that 999 men out of 1000 want to know can be imparted in plain 
language and arithmetic. I therefore think that such a book as yours 
is the kind that does the greatest good to the gi-eatest number." 

I2ino. Cloth, 233 Pag'es, IO8 Illustrations Ctf v i\f\ 

- PRirr yv^y ipl.W 

For Sale by booksellers generally or sent postpaid to any 

address upon receipt of price, 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.. Publishers 
21 1 -213 C. M&dison Street, CHICAGO, U.S.A. 




DYNAMO TENDING 




ENGINEERS 

Or, ELECTRICITY 
FOR STEAM ENGINEERS 

By HENRY C. flOKSTMANN and 
VICTOR H. TOUSLEY, 
Authors of ■Modern "Wiring Diagrams and 
Descriptions for Electrical Workers." 



This excellent treatise is WTrltten by 
engineers for engineers, and is a cleaV 
and comprehensive treatise on the prin- 
ciples, construction and operation of 
Dynamos, Motors, Lamps, Storage Bat- 
teries, Indicators and Measuring Instru- 
ments, as well as full explanations of the 
principles governing the generation 
of alternating currents and a descrip- 
tion of alternating current instruments and machinery. There are 
perhaps but few engineers who have not in the course of their labors 
come in contact with the electrical apparatus such as pertains to light 
and power distribution and generation. At the present rate of increase 
in the use of Electricity it is but a question of time when every steam 
installation will have in connecton with it an electrical generator, even 
in such buildings where light and power are supplied by some central 
station. It is essential that the man in charge of Engines, Boilers, 
Elevators, etc., be familiar with electrical matters, and it cannot well 
be other than an advantage to him and his employers. It is with a view 
to assisting engineers and others to obtain such knowledge as will enable 
them to intelligently manage such electrical apparatus as will ordinarily 
come under their control that this book has been written. The authors 
have had the co-operation of the best authorities, each in his chosen field, 
and the information given is just such as a steam engineer should know. 
To further this information, and to more carefully explain the text, 
nearly 100 illustrations are used, which, with perhaps a very few excep- 
tions, have been especially made for this book. There are many tables 
covering all sorts of electrical matters, so that immediate reference can 
be made without resorting to figm'ing. It covers the subject thoroughly, 
but so simply that any one can understand it fully. Any one making a 
pretense to electrical engineering needs this book. " Nothing keeps a man 
down like the lack of training ; nothing lifts him up as quickly or as 
surely as a thorough, practical knowledge of the work he has to do. This 
book was written for the man v^athout an opportunity. No matter what 
he is, or what work he has to do, it gives him just such information 
and training as are requii^ed to attain success. It teaches just what 
the steam engineer should know in his engine room about electricity. 
13mo, Cloth, 100 lUtistratious. Size51^x72i. PRICE NET Al CA 
Sold by booksellers generally, or sent, all charges paid, upon ^livU 
receipt of price ' 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE Ci COMPANY 

Publishers of Self- Educational Books for Mechanics 

211-313 East Madison Street CHICAGO* U.S.A. 



THE NP:\V air |{|{AKF<: hook Invaliiablo to Tralnnion, Entfineera 

FlrcuuMi, CoiKlmtors. EhMtrh- MotoriiKMi :iii<l .M<-<liaiil«s. 

Tlic Latost and Hcst liK)4 Edition. 

MODERN AIR BRAKE PRACTICE 

ITS USE AND ABUSE 

With Questions and Answers for liOfomotlve Engineers and Electric 
Motornien. liy FJtANIv H. DL'KESMITH. 

rHE necessity for a modern, practical air 
brake instruction book was never 
greater than now, owing to the fact 
that railroad extension is being so ag- 
gressively pushed in all parts of America, 
and particularly because of the fact that 
recent legislation of our American congress, 
compelling railroads to bring up their air 
brake equipment to at least 50 per cent of 
the number of cars in service, is naturally 
causing all railroads to demand a greater 
efficiency on the part of their employes in 
the operation and maintenance of the 
automatic air brake. 

While there have been many air brake 
books written, we feel sale in saying Ihat 
never before has the subject been treated in 
the same lucid, understandable manner in 
which our author has treated it in this new 
book. 

Mr. Dukesmith treats the subject en- 
tirely different from all other ait brake 
writers, inasmuch as he has divided the 
subject into three distinct parts, as f( Hows: 
In section one, he explains and illus. rates 
the various parts of the air brake equip- 
ment and their duties; in section two. he 
treats of the various defects and their remedies: in section three, he treats of 
the philosophy of airbrake handling, together with tables and rules for com- 
puting brake power, leverage, etc. 

Every device now in use in the Westingliouse Air Brake System is fulty explained 
and particular treatment is given the subject of the hish speed brake in its pres- 
ent stage of development. 

In the addition to the Westinghouse automatic airbrake, there is also given 
a full and complete treatment of the straig/U air brake as is noir usrd on electric 
railways, in order that motonneti may be able to master the necessary knowledge 
demanded of them in handling air brakes. 

Following each section is a complete list of questions and answers covering 
a thorough air brake examination. 

"Modern Air Brake Practice, Its Use and Abuse" contains over two hundred 
and fifty pages and is profusely illustrated with engravings of all parts of the 
air brake equipment, and, as these engravings have been furnished bj- the West- 
inghouse Air Brake Company of Pittsburg, Pa., absolute authenticity is 
assured. 

You may have read many air brake books, but whether you have or not, 
you cannot afford to be without the benefits contained In this volume if jou have 
anything whatever to do with the operation or maintenance of air brakes. 

The book is fully indexed and cross indexed, so that any subject can be 
turned to immediately , as desired. 

If you are already posted, you can becomebetter posted. If you really want 
to know all that is worth knowing about air brake practice send for this book. 

12MO. CLOTH. PRICE ONLY 

Sold by booksellers generally or sent postpaid to any address 
upon receipt of price. 

FREDERICK J. DRAKE O COMPANY 

Publishers of Self-Educational Books for Mechanics 
211-213 E. MADISON STREET CHICAGO, V.S.A* 




$1.50 



Modern Blacksmithing 
Rational Horseshoeing 
and Wagon Making 



By J. G. HOLMSTROM 

HIS valuable work is 
written by a man hav- 
thirty years' practical 
experience; Elementary 
rules are employed, thus 
avoiding technical terms, 
rendering this treatise prac- 
tical and invaluable to all 
who have use for it. Even 
the old est blacksmith or 
wagon maker will find many 
helpful suggestions, and any young man can 
master the principles of these two useful 
arts by a careful study of this book. Invalu- 
able to farmers, horseshoers, wagon makers, 
machinists, liverymen, well drillers and man- 
ufacturers. Elegantly bound in handsome 
cloth — 204 pages — 100 fine engravings. 

CLOTH, $1.00 




FREDERICK J. DRAKE ^ CO., Publishers 
211-213 East Madison Street ... - Chicago 



5 



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